6. Settlement Dynamics Flashcards

1
Q

What are the perceptions of rural areas in a HIC?

A

Rural perceptions in HICs:

  • Ageing population
  • Close-knit communities
  • Sparsely populated
  • Traditional (architecture)
  • Conservative
  • Less polluted but car dependent
  • Affluent but few services OR hidden poverty
  • Peaceful but boring for young people
  • Agricultural areas
  • Homogenous (also identical social traits)

Read through this - just to get an idea of how affluence shapes contrasts between rural areas

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2
Q

What are the perceptions of rural areas in an LIC?

A

Rural perceptions in an LIC:

  • Self sufficient
  • Subsistence lifestyle
  • Strong traditions
  • Dependence on agriculture / livestock
  • Strong emphasis on family
  • Extremely low population density
  • Traditional housing
  • Poor accessibility
  • Low incomes and limited material posessions
  • Limited to no service provision
  • Difficult environmental conditions

Read through this - just to get an idea of how affluence shapes contrasts between rural areas

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3
Q

How does rural Iceland match perceptions of rural areas?

A
  • Homogenous - 94% Icelandic (Norse and Gaelic roots)
  • Traditional - tightly knit communities, little cultural diversity
  • Sparsely populated - 7 people per square mile
  • High quality of life and living standards - affluent
  • High out-migration
  • Cultural events but also lots of time spent at home - 3rd most literate nation in the world
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4
Q

What challenges face rural Iceland?

A
  • Social isolation - only 375,318 people in the entire country
  • Imports - increased prices of food, high cost of living
  • Few opportunities for young people in the country - high out-migration to Denmark
  • Limited product variety due to small population and imports
  • Insular community
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5
Q

Where is Brampford Speke?

A

Brampford Speke is a village found directly north of Exeter, 7 miles from the city centre

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6
Q

How has Brampford Speke changed?

A

Changes to Brampford Speke:

  • Independent community → more suburbanised commuter village with high private vehicle ownership
  • Growing population and increased number of houses
  • Decline in village services as people commute to cities for shopping etc.
  • Improved roads and linear expansion along roads
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7
Q

What are the most major changes to the UK in terms of rural settlement within the last 50 years?

A

The most significant changes to UK rural settlement are:

  • Rural settlements / areas no longer dominated by farming
  • Recreation, tourism and conservation now significant which creates a multi-use landscape.
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8
Q

How have developments in agriculture changed rural settlement within the UK?

A
  • Large scale intensive farming techniques have reduced demand for labour - 6.1% population employed in agriculture in 1950 versus 1% in 2023
  • These techniques have also decreased the size of wildlife habitats such as hedgerows
  • Farm wages are low, leading to struggle to make a living from rural incomes, leading to diversification of farmland uses
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9
Q

How important is counterurbanisation for patterns of rural settlement within the UK?

A
  • Counterurbanisation is the dominant process shaping settlement patterns
  • Greenbelts have limited growth on rural urban fringes, but commuters populate beyond the greenbelt restrictions
  • Rural depopulation significant only in small, isolated locations.
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10
Q

How have changes to rural services changed rural settlement within the UK?

A

Rural areas have seen a decline in shops, post offices, healthcare, leisure activities, bus and train connections and local pubs. The reasons for this are:

  • Market forces - supermarkets are more competitive
  • Changes to shopping habits - private car ownership has reduced demand for local services, as has online shopping
  • Changes in expectations of rural residents - character of rural areas changes as affluent residents move in and gentrify houses.

Furthermore, some rural services are reinvented to suit new affluent residents - gastropubs with fine dining etc.

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11
Q

How have changes to house prices changed rural settlement within the UK?

A

Counterurbanisation and second home ownership have caused house prices to significantly increase, creating a lack of affordable housing which forces young people to move out to market towns or urban centres.

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12
Q

What were the Beeching Cuts of the 1960s?

A

Beeching (Government Advisor) suggested in the 1960s that 1/3 of all railway lines (mostly rural) should be closed entirely, along with 2,363 stations in the UK

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13
Q

How is land confiscation an issue in China?

A

As China’s cities expand and sprawl, the surrounding high-demand rural land is ‘confiscated’ by land governments to sell to developers.

China’s farmers, due to communist principles, do not own the land they farm, and thus are not entitled to the rights to sell or lease their farms.

This has created significant tension between agricultural workers on state-owned land versus local governments, and violence has been used by both sides.

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14
Q

How is soil pollution an issue in China?

A

As a result of rapid industrialisation and lax environmental laws, rural areas in China have suffered from heavy metal pollution across vast swathes of farmland. This has negative health consequences for the local people.

The use of wastewater containing industrial discharges for agriculture leads to this heavy metal accumulation in the soil.

In a Chinese government survey between 2005 and 2013 taken over 6.3 million kilometres, 1/5 of land was found to be polluted.

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15
Q

How is rural-urban migration an issue in China (MIC)?

A

China’s implementation of free market features into its communist ideology in the 1970s sparked the largest rural-urban migration pattern in history.

This is inadvertently encouraged by massive investment into China’s Special Economic Zones (primarily on the coast of China) in comparison to little to no investment into rural areas.

This has resulted in increased rates of rural poverty and created a dependent population as an increasing proportion of the young and working age people leave for cities.

Furthermore, the Hukou system designed to discourage migration leaves migrants treated as second class citizens in the cities they migrate to, unable to access basic services such as healthcare.

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16
Q

How is food insecurity a problem in South Sudan (LIC)?

A

About 4.9 million people (more than 40% of South Sudan’s population) are in need of urgent food and nutrition and agriculture assistance.

This may rise to 5.5 million if action is not taken to curb the severity of the food crisis.

This has been caused by:

  • Recent conflict in South Sudan, the world’s newest country founded on July 9th, 2011
  • Market failure and soaring inflation - up to 800% year on year
  • Rural-urban migration
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17
Q

How is increased food insecurity in source areas a negative impact of rural-urban migration in LICs?

A

Although remittances are important factor in many rural economies sent by migrants, encouraging development of rural economies, it also encourages further migration away from rural areas.

This can result in a vicious cycle, whereby:

  • Rural-urban migration decreases the population of an area
  • Fewer people are left in an area to farm the land
  • This leads to decreased yields as farming decreases - less food is produced
  • Because less food is produced, food insecurity occurs which strengthens push factors leading to increased levels of rural-urban migration
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18
Q

How are diseases such as HIV and healthcare a problem in Tanzania?

A
  • People with HIV are stigmatised because of a lack of understanding
  • Sickness reduces the ability of people to work, as well as their overall lifespan
  • Often, people in LICs such as Tanzania have to travel more than 80km to receive treatment for HIV - lack of services
  • HIV affects just under 5% of the population - 2/3 of cases were women
  • In 2015, 780,000 Tanzanian women were living with HIV
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19
Q

Which other issues face rural areas in LICs?

A
  • Transport - only 7% of roads in Tanzania are paved
  • Education - many rural areas have little funding for schools and other educational facilities limiting future prospects.
  • Pests - 36 African countries suffer from tsetse flies which transmit the disease Trypanosomiasis. Other diseases such as Malaria can be deadly.
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20
Q

How does distance from urban markets and major cities explain the extent to which rural deprivation exists in Cornwall?

A
  • Truro, the county town, is 225 miles from London, 135 miles from Bristol and 45 miles away from Plymouth.
  • Poor track quality and slow links means that a train from London to St Austell can take 4-5 hours
  • A lack of main roads also impacts Cornwall’s economy - the A30 is the only dual carriageway road to link Cornwall to the M5 at Exeter, and even this is not consistent.
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21
Q

How does mechanisation cause decline in traditional fishing in Cornwall?

A
  • Better fishing techniques and mechanisation lead to more efficient fishing. Sonar tracking and better equipment means that fewer workers are needed.
  • Large scale fishing vessels deplete fish stocks and push fish prices down, making it harder for small-scale fishermen to continue their businesses.
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22
Q

How does the insular nature of fishing communities cause a decline in traditional fishing in Cornwall?

A

Insular nature of fishing communities means that there are few / no new fishermen entering the profession - fishing remains within close-knit family groups. These groups are facing decline as:

  • Young people abandon fishing due to difficulty, danger and low wages and move out of Cornwall to work in urban areas.
  • Starter families are priced out of homes by increases in second home ownership, which forces them to settle elsewhere if they wish to own their own home
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23
Q

Which statistics demonstrate the impact of second home ownership in Cornwall?

A

Average house price in Padstow: £750,000
Average house price in Cranborne: £215,000

11% of homes in Cornwall have no usual resident - England and Wales average of 4%

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24
Q

How do fishing regulations cause a decline in traditional fishing in Cornwall?

A

Post-Brexit UK fishing regulations complicate fish sales, and increased paperwork for fish decreases sales in markets such as the EU.

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25
Q

Where is the world’s largest china clay mine?

A

Little John’s Pit, Cornwall, is the largest china clay mine in the world, a material used in paper, rubber, paint, plastics and more.

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26
Q

How does foreign competition and globalisation cause a decline in traditional mining in Cornwall?

A

Cheaper raw material imports from abroad outcompete Cornish china clay and materials, decreasing business in Cornwall.

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27
Q

How has investment into a post-industrial service economy caused a decline in traditional mining in Cornwall?

A

Deindustrialisation in heavy industry areas removed a major form of employment not replaced by the service economy due to a lack of investment.

In 2010, 1 million dry tonnes of china clay were sold from Cornwall, but in 1988 this was 2.8 million.

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28
Q

How large is the tourism sector in Cornwall?

A
  • Tourism is the largest sector in Cornwall, supporting 1 in 5 jobs.
  • It is projected to grow at 3.8% per year through to 2025
  • As the leading domestic tourist destination in the UK, the area attracts over 4 million UK tourism trips every year.
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29
Q

What is the impact of tourism on Cornwall?

A

Tourism directly creates jobs and wealth in picturesque locations such as Padstow and St Ives.

However employment is often seasonal with many businesses shutting down during the winter.

30
Q

Why is there deprivation in Camborne, Cornwall?

A

Loss of mining industry has led to unemployment and decay - last local mine closed over 25 years ago.

Supporting industries such as Holman’s Mining Equipment (3000 jobs) forced to shut down.

31
Q

What evidence is there of deprivation in Cornwall?

A

High dependence on Camborne Food Bank - supports 300-400 families, providing 14,000 meals / month with just 74 volunteers.

Wages in Camborne are £4/hr lower than the national average

32
Q

How has the Eden Project been successful as a response to decline in Cornwall in terms of tourist numbers?

A
  • Visitor rates within its first year of opening (2001) were more than double the rates expected - 1.9 million visitors versus 750,000 expected.
  • In its first 6 months, the project became the UK’s third most-visited attraction.
33
Q

How has the Eden Project been successful as a response to decline in Cornwall in terms of employment?

A
  • The project sustains 600 full-time employees, most of whom are local.
  • 75% of the Eden Project’s staff were previously unemployed
  • Overall, the Eden Project has reduced Cornwall’s unemployment by 6%.
34
Q

How has the Eden project been successful as a response to decline in Cornwall in terms of tourist spending?

A
  • Each visitor to the Eden Project spends an average of £150 in Cornwall.
  • 75% of visitors stay overnight in Cornwall
  • Tourist visiting the Eden Project in its first 3 years spent a total £600 million in Cornwall.
  • The Project has created spin-off interest in other attractions such as the Lost Gardens of Heligan, the National Maritime Museum at Falmouth, Tate of the West at St Ives.
  • The Eden Project sources all food and drink locally, where possible.
35
Q

How is the Eden Project limited in its effectiveness?

A
  • Low rate of return visits
  • High initial costs - hard to replicate
  • EU Objective One funding not granted due to withdrawal of the UK from the EU (Brexit)
36
Q

How has the Extreme Sports Academy been successful as a response to decline in Cornwall?

A

The Extreme Sports Academy targets a younger age group with training to teach surfing, wave skiing and kite surfing. The owners also run Watergate Bay Hotel overlooking the academy and beach.

They employed 50-60 people all year round in 2006, as opposed to 15-20 in 2003 as a result of increased trade.

37
Q

How has Jamie Oliver’s Fifteen Restaurant been successful as a response to decline in Cornwall?

A

2006 - Jamie Oliver opened the restaurant overlooking Watergate Bay.

100-seater restaurant trains local young people in catering skills

Thirty 16–24-year-olds from disadvantaged backgrounds are selected each year, 15 work in the restaurant with education split between practical work and lessons at Cornwall College, supported by professional chefs.

2/3 of 100 trained still work in hospitality industry - many have started their own businesses.

38
Q

How is Jamie Oliver’s Fifteen Restaurant limited in its effectiveness?

A
  • Shut in 2019 due to financial difficulties.
  • Highly localised and small-scale impact
  • Greater benefit to celebrity to increase exposure than to community as a whole?
39
Q

How has Lobbs Farm Shop in Cornwall been able to increase their profits due to Objective One funding?

A

Until 2003, three brothers from the Lobb family in west Cornwall were making just £30,000 from their 800 acres, shared between three families.

They created their farm shop using £200,000 of funding from Objective One to cater to the potential market of 463,000 visitors a year visiting the nearby Lost Gardens of Heligan, one of Cornwall’s most popular attractions.

40
Q

How has Lobbs Farm Shop been successful as a response to decline in Cornwall in terms of employment?

A

The shop has created 14 new jobs, with more in the summer months. These include:

  • 5 butchers (2 full-time, 2 part-time and a trainee)
  • 1 full time and 6 part-time shop assistants
  • 2 administrative staff
41
Q

How has Lobbs Farm Shop been successful as a response to decline in Cornwall in terms of sales?

A

The farm shop focuses on the sale of meat and vegetables produced on the farm, as well as locally sourced artisan products such as Cornish wine and cheese.

  • The shop generated over £600,000 in additional sales in 3 years.
  • The shop also features a visitor centre informing visitors about farming, tours and information about environmental management and sustainable cattle farming.
42
Q

How is Lobbs Farm Shop limited in effectiveness?

A
  • Smaller scale impact than Eden Project - localised impact
  • Increased competition with local businesses
43
Q

What are the causes of urban growth?

A

Urban growth mainly takes place in developing economies during industrialisation and a transition from primary to secondary and tertiary industries.

Urban growth is caused by:

  • Rural-urban migration due to perceived opportunities / changing agricultural economies etc (push or pull).
  • Population growth of existing urban population due to lack of family planning / need for children / desire for large families
44
Q

What are the economic consequences of urbanisation in MICs and LICs?

A
  • Great divides between the rich and poor e.g. very poor in Makoko and very rich on Lagos Island
  • Many people work in ‘informal sector’ meaning city councils cannot collect income taxes to spend on improving conditions
  • Influx of labour often exceeds demand leading to unemployment, poverty and higher crime rates e.g. area boys in Nigeria
45
Q

What are the social consequences of urbanisation in MICs and LICs?

A
  • Increase in informal accommodation / squatters such as at Olososun rubbish dump.
  • Overcrowding in slums / squatter settlements
  • Services e.g. healthcare, education and sewage disposal cannot keep up with population growth.
46
Q

What are the environmental consequences of urbanisation in MICs and LICs?

A
  • Newly-built factories may pollute air, water and land if not managed correctly e.g. Dangote Cement Factory in Nigeria
  • Rubbish and waste left on streets if there are not enough formal waste disposal services
  • Raw sewage disposed straight into water sources leading to contamination e.g. Makoko into Lagos Lagoon
47
Q

How has Lagos grown since the 1950s?

A

Population growth:

  • 1950: 300,000
  • Today: 15-20m

Estimated 10,000 new residents arrive each week - strong rural-urban migration stream.

48
Q

What are the consequences of urban growth in Lagos?

A
  • Growth too rapid for industry to keep up providing enough jobs
  • Increase in informal sector e.g. street hauling / vending or recycling in Olososun Dump
  • Area Boys engage in drug dealing and extortion of motorists for cash (protection money)
  • Diesel / petrol generators used to make up for lack of reliable electricity access = NOx, particulate matter, CO2 air pollution
  • Informal E-Waste industries cause heavy metal pollution of land and air. Dangerous working conditions
  • Significant inequality
  • Traffic congestion and poorly organised infrastructure
49
Q

What are the land uses of the Central Business District (CBD)?

A
  • Commercial / administrative centre
  • Mainly shops / offices
  • Few people live here
  • High land values
  • Most accessible area
  • Congested and busy
50
Q

What are the economic justifications for the land uses of the Central Business District (CBD)?

A
  • Transport routes often connect in the centre of the city, leading to increased accessibility so higher footfalls for businesses
  • Historical inertia -understood as the central area for commerce and business
  • Some businesses also see the status of conducting business in the prime location of the city
  • Higher investment into city centres to support its land uses e.g. Princesshay redevelopment
  • Proximity to other retailers and similar activities allows for comparison and complimentary sales.
51
Q

What are the benefits of moving out of the CBD for smaller businesses?

A

Low rents on brownfield sites - former slum housing which has now been cleared, or previous sites of industry which have been moved.

Greenfield sites on the outskirts also have cheaper land prices than the CBD.

52
Q

What are the benefits of moving out of the CBD for hypermarkets and shopping centres? (e.g. Cribbs Causeway, Bristol)

A
  • Greenfield sites have cheaper land prices so expensive single-storey buildings can be erected at little cost
  • Accessible for cars, good transport connections e.g. via ring-roads and plenty of parking space
53
Q

What are ‘anchor stores’

A

An ‘anchor store’ is the first (and often most important) business at a mall, which attracts not only customers but also other businesses that want to locate near it for extra customers.

54
Q

What are the benefits of moving out the CBD for administrative offices such as the Met Office Exeter?

A
  • Modern communication reduces need to be next to offices of similar types or financial institutions
  • Easier parking, more space and cheaper land prices on outskirts
  • Labour force moved to suburbs with development of public transport and, later, the private car.
55
Q

How does spatial competition affect land uses?

A

Where different land uses bid for the use of the same area, there is inadequate space for everyone!

  • Competition for land may result in ‘functional zonation’ where similar activities group together e.g. retail, industry or housing.
  • Planning measures such as land use zoning can impact this competition for land / space.
56
Q

What does the Economic Bid-Rent Theory suggest?

A

The Economic Bid-Rent Theory suggests that the closer one is to the CBD, the higher the land value.

Different land uses then compete with one another to be close to the CBD.

This assumes that land at the CBD is the most desirable, arguably due to its high accessibility and footfall, which allows the maximisation of profits.

57
Q

What processes does the Economic Bid-Rent Theory not describe?

A
  • Relocation of retail to rural-urban fringe e.g. Cribbs Causeway
  • Loss of industry in the inner city as a result of deindustrialisation / redevelopment e.g. Bristol Harbourside
58
Q

What is the Doughnut Effect?

A

The Doughnut Effect refers to a development where the city centre becomes more hollow / empty as businesses and people move into the outskirts of the city / rural-urban fringe.

59
Q

What political factors influence the decline of the CBD?

A
  • Planning policies can encourage urban expansion and developments ‘out-of-town’
  • City councils, determined to attract new industry / inward investment, offer greenfield sites for development
  • Investment into city centres has been largely into prestige projects and often lacked a coordinated plan
60
Q

What social factors influence the decline of the CBD?

A
  • Rise in car ownership leads to increase in personal mobility and the rise of ‘leisure’ shopping
  • Progressive suburbanisation leads to urban sprawl - for edge cities, the city centre may be many kilometres away!
  • Congestion means that the accessibility of many CBDs is reduced
61
Q

What economic factors influence the decline of the CBD?

A
  • The costs of development and upkeep of CBDs are high (business rates, rents and land costs)
  • Companies find peripheral locations cheaper, and nearer affluent customers and staff in the leafy suburbs
62
Q

What environmental factors influence the decline of the CBD?

A
  • City centres are perceived as dirty, unsafe, with an ageing environment and poor infrastructure.
  • In contrast, investors and businesses are attracted by peripheral sites with good access, pleasant environment and often lower costs.
63
Q

How do physical factors influence the development of cities?

A

Physical factors often relate to the historical development of cities:

  • Ports - Bristol developed along the Avon River - Bristol Docks had easy access to Bristol Channel and international trade until 1950s
  • Steep relief - Cape Town in South Africa is restricted by steep relief such as Table Mountain. Historic city centres often on defensive hilltop sites e.g. Exeter Rougemont Castle, Edinburgh Castle
  • Island cities - Hong Kong and Singapore are densely built up due to the spatial restrictions of being on islands
  • Low-lying marshy land - may be unsuitable to build on if floods or if surrounded by bodies of water e.g. Makoko on Lagos Lagoon or Dharavi slum in Mumbai
64
Q

Which politically-induced processes shape the redevelopment of cities?

A
  • Urban [R]edevelopment includes complete clearance of existing buildings and infrastructure, then construction of new buildings
  • Urban [R]enewal keeps the best elements of the existing urban environment (often due to planning restrictions) and adapts it to new usage
  • Urban [R]egeneration reintroduces people back into urban areas that have declined - involves both Regeneration and Renewal, generally in HICs
65
Q

How does planning influence the ‘three R’s’ and the development of urban areas?

A
  • Planning is organising growth and change in a city with involvement from councils and / or government.
  • Planning affects what happens in urban settlements (the function of an activity) and where it happens (the location)

[Planning is most relevant in HICs where uncontrolled slum sprawl does not exist - still occurs in MICs / LICs]

66
Q

Why was redevelopment necessary at Princesshay?

A

After WW2, buildings were needed to repair the damage that Exeter suffered during the Blitz. Plans were submitted by Thomas Shergo to develop a pedestrianised shopping centre called Princesshay.

During the 1990s, Exeter Council felt under pressure to improve the retail core of the city centre to:

  • Prevent the development of shopping centres in Exeter’s rural-urban fringe (e.g. Cribbs Causeway in Bristol)
  • Maintain Exeter’s CBD as a major destination for shoppers in SW England.
67
Q

Who redeveloped Princesshay, and when?

A

Princesshay was redeveloped from 2005-2007 by Land Securities, who had gained international fame for their redevelopment of Whitefriars in Canterbury.

68
Q

What are the main types of land uses in Princesshay?

A
  • Retail - Apple, HMV, Superdry, Next
  • Hospitality - Yo!Sushi, Chandos Deli, Costa Coffee
  • Housing - Residential apartments
69
Q

Why is the Princesshay location ideal for ‘anchor stores’ such as Debenhams?

A
  • Large store buildings increase floor space available for shopping, as well as reputation and prestige of the chain
  • Good central location increases profitability as transport links and accessible location increases footfall
  • Central location increases ease of access to labour force
  • Proximity to other retailers and similar activities allows for comparison and complimentary sales.
70
Q

What evidence is there that redevelopment of Princesshay has reintroduced people to a declining area?

A
  • Princesshay contributed more than £200m to Exeter between 2007 and 2017
  • Princesshay has triggered investment into the nearby area - House of Fraser spent £1.6m refurbishing the Dingles Store, which it inhabited until the COVID pandemic.
  • Area employs 1,200 people as store and restaurant workers, security, cleaning and maintenance staff and centre management.
  • The area attracts more than 16 million visitors every year.
71
Q

How large is the Princesshay redevelopment?

A
  • Biggest single regeneration project in the history of Exeter
  • Princesshay hosts over 60 shops, cafes and restaurants, as well as 122 apartments
  • Princesshay also contains a heritage centre (Exeter Underground Tunnels), a 270 space car park and public art.