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Human Structure and Function 2 > 2 (17) Blood > Flashcards

2 (17) Blood Flashcards

1
Q

What type of tissue is blood?

A

connective tissue

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2
Q

What similarities do we see between blood and all other tissues of this type?

A
  • connective tissue is also found in bones and adipose (fat)
  • bones and blood both have a matrix
  • organic matrix of bone is made of collagen fibers and the inorganic matrix of bone is made of salts; both providing durability to the bone
  • matrix of blood is formed of ground substance (fluid—plasma) and fibers
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3
Q

What are the three main functions of blood? Go into detail – do not just list 3 words

A

(1) Transport
- delivering oxygen from lungs and nutrients from digestive tract
- transporting metabolic wastes to lungs and kidneys
- transporting hormones from endocrine organs to target organs
(2) Regulation
- maintaining homeostasis
- body temperature, pH levels in body tissues, and fluid volume in the circulatory system
(3) Protection
- preventing blood loss
- preventing infection

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4
Q

How is blood different from water?

A

blood is thicker, heavier, and 3-5 times more viscous than water (this is due largely because of the formed elements)

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5
Q

How does the temperature of blood differ from the average body temperature?

A

the temperature of blood on average is 100.4, while the normal body temperature is 98.6

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6
Q

What do you see after you put a tube of whole blood in a centrifuge?

A

3 layers:

  • 55% plasma (least dense, so at the top of the tube)
  • Less than 1% buffy coat (in the middle of the two) (buffy = leukocytes and platelets)
  • 45% erythrocytes (most dense, so at the bottom of the tube)
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7
Q

What are the “formed elements” of blood, and what percent of blood do they usually make up?

A

the buffy coat (leukocytes and platelets) and erythrocytes make up the formed elements of blood (<46%)

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8
Q

What would you find in the buffy coat?

A

leukocytes and platelets

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9
Q

Be able to calculate the approximate blood volume of a person if you are given his weight in kilograms. (1 kg = 2.2 lbs.)

A
  • blood is 8% of body weight
    Example: Calculate the blood volume (in Liters) of a person who weighs 154 lbs.
  • answer: 154 lbs./2.2 lbs. = 70 kg.
  • 70 kg. x 0.08 (8%) = 5.6 kg
  • 5.6 kg. = 5.6 L
    remember: the average blood volume is between 4-6 L!
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10
Q

What is an hematocrit and what does it measure?

A

“blood fraction”; the percent of blood volume that is erythrocytes (RBC’s)

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11
Q

How would the hematocrit of a male typically compare to that of a female? Why does this occur?

A 
Male = 47% plus or minus 5%
Female = 42% plus or minus 5%

men have more androgens
women bleed more during menstrual cycle

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12
Q

What is the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and what can it tell us?

A
  • ESR: the rate at which blood cells sediment in a period of one hour
  • ESR is a non-specific measure of inflammation: increases during infection, autoimmune diseases, and inflammation; decreases in sickle cell anemia, polycythemia, and hyperglycemia
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13
Q

When we remove the formed elements from blood, what is left?

A

only plasma

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14
Q

What do we have if we then remove the clotting factors? What is this used for?

A
  • serum is what we would have left if we removed the clotting factors
  • this is used for tests because serum still contains ions, nutrients, enzymes, gases, wastes, hormones, and some proteins
  • antibodies are also still present
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15
Q

What do we call the stem cell from which all blood cells originate? Where is blood formed in a fetus? After birth?

A
  • stem cells from which all blood originates are called hemocytoblasts through a process called hematopoiesis
  • in a fetus, blood is formed by the yolk sac, liver, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow
  • after birth, blood is formed by red bone marrow only
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16
Q

Describe the shape of an erythrocyte. Why is this shape important to its function?

A
  • erythrocytes have the shape of a biconcave disc—flattened discs with depressed centers (lack nuclei and organelles)
  • this shape is important because it allows RBC’s to change shape (twist, turn, bend) as necessary to travel through capillaries smaller than themselves
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17
Q

To achieve this shape (erythrocyte), what organelle does the cell have to lose, and how does this affect its ability to function?

A

since there are no mitochondria, they do not consume any of the oxygen they carry, making them perfect oxygen transporters

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18
Q

Describe a hemoglobin molecule. Is our hemoglobin the same throughout our life time?

A
  • the protein that makes RBC’s red in color and most oxygen carried in blood is bound to hemoglobin
  • consists of heme and four polypeptide chains (2 alpha and 2 beta) called globin
  • the iron containing pigment (heme) binds easily and reversibly with oxygen
  • beta peptides vary throughout our lifetime
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19
Q

Where does the oxygen bind?

A

to the heme component of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells

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20
Q

Where can carbon dioxide bind?

A

at the α-amino group

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21
Q

When oxygen binds with hemoglobin what compound is formed?

A

oxyhemoglobin

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22
Q

What compound is formed when carbon dioxide binds with hemoglobin?

A

carbaminohemoglobin

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23
Q

What compound is formed when carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin?

A

carboxyhemoglobin

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24
Q

Why would a person appear cyanotic?

A

the appearance of blue or purplish colored skin due to the tissues of near the skin’s surface having low oxygen concentration in the blood

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25
Q

Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?

A

binds more tightly to hemoglobin than oxygen, so the blood is very poorly oxygenated

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26
Q

Where does nitric oxide (NO) bind, and what does it do?

A

nitric oxide binds to sulfur atoms in the lungs and is delivered with oxygen to tissues

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27
Q

What is the average red blood cell count for a male (in millions of cells/mm3)?

A

average RBC count is 5.4 million/cubic mm

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28
Q

What is the average red blood cell count for a female (in millions of cells/mm3).

A

4.8 million/cubic mm

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29
Q

What is the average red blood cell count for a child (in millions of cells/mm3).

A

4.8 million/cubic mm

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30
Q

What is the average red blood cell count for a person living at high altitudes (in millions of cells/mm3).

A

8 million/cubic mm (this is due to low oxygen levels)

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31
Q

Why do red blood cells have a short life span?

A
  • they are unable to synthesize new proteins, grow, and divide
  • become “old” as they lose their flexibility, become rigid and fragile, and their hemoglobin begins to degenerate
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32
Q

What is a reticulocyte?

A

“young erythrocyte”; still contains a small reticulum (network) of clumped ribosome

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33
Q

What does the number of reticulocytes present in the blood stream tell us?

A

reticulocyte counts give a rough estimate at the rate of RBC production

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34
Q

What does it indicate if we see normoblasts in

circulation? (MP 196)

A

normoblasts in circulation? this signals near death

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35
Q

What enzymes and enzyme systems are found in a mature erythrocyte and what do they do?

A

glycolytic enzymes - assist with glycolysis
carbonic anhydrase - assists rapid inter-conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid, protons and bicarbonate ions

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36
Q

What is the life cycle of a red blood cell?

A
  • Low O2 levels in the blood stimulate kidneys to produce erythropoietin
  • Erythropoietin levels rise in the blood
  • Erythropoietin and necessary raw materials in the blood promote erythropoiesis in red bone marrow
  • New erythrocytes enter the bloodstream; function about 120 days
  • Aged and damaged RBC’s are engulfed by macrophages of the spleen, liver, and bone marrow; the hemoglobin is broken down
  • Raw materials are made available in blood for erythrocyte synthesis
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37
Q

What happens to hemoglobin when a RBC dies?

A
  • hemoglobin is split into heme and globin*
  • heme: iron is salvaged and stored for reuse, liver cells pick up bilirubin and secrete it in bile into the intestine
  • globin: broken down to amino acids, which are released to the circulation
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38
Q

What is transferrin?

A

a transport protein that iron is loosely bound to

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39
Q

What is ferritin?

A

protein-iron complexes that store iron

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40
Q

What is erythropoietin?

A

a glycoprotein hormone that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes

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41
Q

Where is it formed and what does it do?

A

erythropoietin is mainly produced in the kidneys, but some is also produced in the liver in response to hypoxia

42
Q

What happens to bilirubin when the ducts from the liver to the small intestine becomes blocked?

A

jaundice: skin and whites of your eyes turn yellow in response to the ducts from the liver to the small intestine being blocked, so bilirubin builds up

43
Q

What is anemia?

A

inability of the blood to carry sufficient oxygen to the body, low number of RBCs, lack of hemoglobin

44
Q

What is pernicious anemia?

A

lack of RBCs due to lack of vitamin B12

45
Q

Why does a person who is anemic feel “tired all the time”?

A

blood loss, not enough RBC’s produced, and/or too many RBC’s destroyed

46
Q

What other vitamins and minerals are needed to prevent anemia?

A
  • folic acid

- iron

47
Q

How do we lose iron from the body?

A

chronic blood loss within the body — such as from a peptic ulcer, a hiatal hernia, a colon polyp or colorectal cancer — can cause iron deficiency anemia

48
Q

What is sickle cell anemia?

A
  • abnormal hemoglobin (hemoglobin S); results from a change in one of the 146 amino acids in a beta chain of the globin molecule
  • beta chains link together and form stiff rods so hemoglobin S becomes spiky and sharp; interfere with oxygen delivery and leave victims gasping for air and in extreme pain
49
Q

What is polycythemia?

A

excess of red blood cells (blood gets too thick to flow and clots)

50
Q

When can it be good, and when can it be harmful?

A 
good = secondary polycythemia: if you are a long-distance runner, you can carry more oxygen and run longer; EPO increases = higher RBC count; normal to those living in high altitude
harmful = polycythemia vera: a bone marrow cancer; exceptionally high RBC count; blood volume may double, causing the vascular system to become engorged with blood and severely impairing circulation
51
Q

What is the main function of leukocytes?

A

defense against disease

52
Q

What are the three cell lines?

A

myeloid, lymphoid, monocytic

53
Q

Name the two main types of leukocytes.

A
  • granular leukocytes

- agranular leukocytes

54
Q

Name the leukocytes that fall into those two categories.

A

granular - neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

agranular - lymphocytes, monocytes

55
Q

Describe and give the function of each type of white blood cell.

A
  • Neutrophils*
  • 54-62% of leukocytes
  • Multi-lobed nucleus
  • Younger neutrophils are called bands
  • Granules take up both basic and acidic dyes (lilac in color)
  • “Bacteria slayers”
  • Attracted to sites of inflammation
  • Are active phagocytes
  • Eosinophils*
  • 1-3% of all leukocytes
  • Bi-lobed nucleus
  • Stain red with acid
  • Kill parasitic worms
  • Role in allergy and asthma
  • Basophils*
  • Less than 1% of leukocytes
  • Bi-lobed nucleus
  • Stain blue with basic dyes
  • Release histamine and other inflammation mediators
  • Contain heparin—an anticoagulant
  • Lymphocytes*
  • 25-33% of leukocytes
  • Few actually found in blood
  • Large, dark purple nucleus
  • Mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies
  • Monocytes*
  • 3-9% of leukocytes
  • Horseshoe shaped nucleus
  • Phagocytosis
  • Largest leukocyte
  • Develop into macrophages in the tissues
56
Q

What do B lymphocytes do?

A

produce plasma cells, which give rise to antibodies

57
Q

What do T lymphocytes do?

A

attack invaders directly

58
Q

Be able to give the relative proportions of each type of leukocyte.

A 
neutrophils (54-62%)
lymphocyte (25-33%)
monocyte (3-9%)
eosinophils (1-3%)
basophil (<1%)
[Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas]
59
Q

What is leukocytosis?

A

a white blood cell count over 11,000 cells/microliter (normal response to infection)

60
Q

What is leukopenia?

A

(never normal) abnormally low WBC count (may be drug induced)

61
Q

What is a “differential white blood cell count”? Why is it helpful?

A

you count 100 leukocytes on a slide and get percentages of each type of white blood cell

62
Q

What information would you get if you asked the lab for a complete blood count?

A
  • white blood cell count (WBC or leukocyte count)
  • WBC differential count
  • red blood cell count (RBC or erythrocyte count)
  • hematocrit (Hct)
  • hemoglobin (Hbg)
  • mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
  • mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH)
  • mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC)
  • red cell distribution width (RDW)
  • platelet count
63
Q

What are major histocompatibility antigens and where are they found? How do we use them?

A

antigens used in tissue typing; they are found on the surface of organs

64
Q

Describe a platelet. What cell does it come from, and what does it do?

A

“thrombocytes” = cell fragments

  • involved in blood clotting
  • release serotonin, which contracts smooth muscle in walls of blood vessels, reducing blood flow (and blood loss)
  • formed from megakaryocytes
  • life span of platelets are 5-10 days
65
Q

What are the three main types of protein found in blood plasma, and what does each do?

A

(1) Albumin: helps maintain blood osmotic pressure
(2) Globulin: transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins (Alpha globulins, Beta globulins, Gamma globulins)
(3) Fibrinogen: plays a key role in blood coagulation

66
Q

What are the lipids found in plasma?

A

cholesterol and triglycerides

67
Q

What is a carbohydrate in plasma?

A

glucose, other sugars present in trace amounts

68
Q

What else would you find in plasma?

A

92% of plasma to be water along with 8% solutes (ions, nutrients, enzymes, gases, wastes, hormones, and proteins)

69
Q

How is serum different? What does serum contain?

A

serum is plasma WITHOUT the clotting factors // ions, nutrients, enzymes, gases, wastes, hormones, some proteins and, most importantly, ANTIBODIES

70
Q

What is hemostasis?

A

stoppage of bleeding/prevention of blood loss

71
Q

What are the four steps involved in hemostasis?

A

(1) vascular spasm
(2) platelet plug formation
(3) blood coagulation (clotting)
(4) clot retraction

72
Q

What is vascular spasm?

A

smooth muscle in vessel wall contracts, causing vasoconstriction (decreasing the diameter of the blood vessel) => decreases blood flow

73
Q

What causes vascular spasm?

A
  • direct injury to vascular smooth muscle
  • chemicals released by endothelial cells and platelets
  • pain reflexes
74
Q

How is a platelet plug formed? (3 steps)

A

1 - platelet adhesion (platelets stick to collagen fibers via plasma protein von Willebrand factor)
2 - platelets become activated - platelet release reaction - swell, become spiked and sticky, and release chemical messenger
3 - platelets become sticky and accumulate - platelet aggregation - serotonin and thromboxane A2 enhance vascular spasm and platelet aggregation

75
Q

What is thrombosis?

A

formation of a blood clot within an unbroken blood vessel

76
Q

What is thrombus?

A

blood clot that forms inside one of your veins or arteries

77
Q

What is embolus?

A

if a clot breaks free and travels in the blood stream

78
Q

What is embolism?

A

if a clot lodges elsewhere in the body

79
Q

What are clotting factors?

A
  • also called procoagulants

- most are clotting factors are plasma proteins synthesized by the liver (numbered I-XIII)

80
Q

What are the minerals in clotting factors?

A

Ca2+

81
Q

What vitamin is needed for the formation of clotting factors?

A

vitamin K
=> but it is not a clotting factor
=> required for the synthesis of four of the clotting factors by the liver
=> normally made by bacteria of the large intestine

82
Q

Where are many of the clotting factors made?

A

clotting factors are made by bacteria in the large intestine

83
Q

What are the three stages of blood clotting?

A

(1) formation of prothrombinase
(2) prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin
(3) thrombin + calcium = conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin

84
Q

What are the differences between the extrinsic pathway and the intrinsic pathway?

A
  • Intrinsic pathway: factors needed for clotting are present within the blood => triggered by activated platelets, collagen, or glass; slower because several intermediates
  • Extrinsic pathway: the tissue factor it requires is outside of the blood => triggered by exposing blood to a factor found in tissues underneath damaged endothelium; faster because it bypasses several steps of intrinsic pathway
85
Q

If blood clotting is a positive feedback loop, what keeps all our blood from clotting once it starts?

A

once we start making fibrin, the fibrin will bond to thrombin and will inactivate it

86
Q

What is clot retraction and how does it occur? How does it help tissue repair?

A

stabilizes the clot // actin and myosin in platelets contract within 30-60 minutes // contraction pulls on fibrin strands, squeezing serum from clot // draws ruptured blood vessel edges together

87
Q

How does a clot break down (what is the fibrolytic system)? How can we use this clinically?

A
  • plasminogen (an inactive enzyme) is incorporated into a clot
  • plasminogen can be activated to plasmin (fibrinolysin), which digests fibrin and inactivates other clotting factors
  • plasminogen is converted to plasmin by tissue
  • plasminogen activator (tPA), factor XII, and thrombin
  • removes unneeded clots after healing
    (begins within two days and continues for several)
    // EMTs can administer tPA in the ambulance if someone has had a stroke/heart attack
88
Q

What is hemophilia?

A

a hereditary trait due to a deficiency of one of the clotting factors causing excessive bleeding

89
Q

What are some common anticoagulants, and how do they work?

A

Prostaglandins: inhibit the aggregation of blood platelets
Heparin: blocks the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin and prevents the release of factor III from platelets
Warfarin and Coumadin: antagonists to vitamin K
Chelating agents tie up Ca2+
Aspirin: inhibits vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation
Dabigatran: directly inhibits thrombin

90
Q

What are the four major blood groups?

A

A, B, AB, O

91
Q

What antigens are found in type A blood? Antibodies produced?

A

antigen A // anti-B antibodies

92
Q

What antigens are found in type B blood? Antibodies produced?

A

antigen B // anti-A antibodies

93
Q

What antigens are found in type AB blood? Antibodies produced?

A

antigen A/B // no antibodies

94
Q

What antigens are found in type O blood? Antibodies produced?

A

no antigens // antibodies anti-A/anti-B

95
Q

What is unusual about antibodies that are produced?

A

w

96
Q

Who is the “universal donor”? Why?

A

Type O // they have no isoantigens on their surface

97
Q

Who is the “universal recipient”? Why?

A

Type AB // they recognize A and B as self

98
Q

What is the Rh factor? How is it designated in a person’s blood type?

A

an antigen that was found in Rhesus monkeys // either have the antigen (+) or do not have the antigen (-) // do not automatically make antibodies, must first encounter the antigen

99
Q

What is erythroblastosis fetalis?

A

hemolytic disease of the newborn // Rh- mom exposed to Rh+ blood of fetus during delivery of first baby (1st baby healthy) // second baby is at risk b/c mom synthesized anti-Rh+ antibodies

100
Q

When does erythroblastosis fetalis occur, what does it do and how can we prevent it?

A

Rh- mom exposed to Rh+ blood of fetus during delivery of first baby (1st baby healthy) => second baby is at risk b/c mom synthesized anti-Rh+ antibodies

  • baby treated with pre-birth transfusions and exchange transfusions after birth
  • RhoGAM serum containing anti-Rh antibodies can prevent Rh- mother from becoming sensitized

Human Structure and Function 2 (13 decks)

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