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Question 1

To what extent is class the most important factor in creating social
identity? (14)

Answer 1

Arguments for:
* the different social classes have distinct values e.g. members of the
upper class are likely to see themselves as belonging to a sort of
exclusive club, based on their ability to spend a lot of money
(conspicuous consumption), which signals their wealth and difference to
others whereas the underclass may enshrine fatalism, immediate
gratification etc.;
* there is a strong sense of working class community in areas with an
industrial past linked to manual work e.g. in the UK coal, steel and
shipbuilding industries boys would often follow their fathers to work and
marriages often were made in the community;
* membership of trade unions, voting patterns and shared working and
living conditions created a strong sense of collective identity that was
stronger in the working class than in some other classes;
* social class may still affect language e.g. restricted and elaborate code,
accent, etc. Which can all create a sense of identity and belonging;
* different classes may participate in different cultural activities and this
can affect identity e.g. members of the working class may associate
themselves more with the products of popular rather than high culture;
* social class can also affect aspects of identity such as gender e.g. the
distinct norms of behaviour linked with the working class culture of
hegemonic masculinity;
* although working class incomes have changed there is still a gap
between the working class and middle and upper classes especially in
terms of consumption and lifestyle and this affects social identity, e.g.
the working class could be distinguished by the styles of clothing they
choose to wear or their ‘fake’ couture;
* working class youth sub-cultures are an exaggeration of the working
class identity e.g. skinheads (Cohen);
* media reporting of the working-class has become very negative,
representing them stereotypically as lazy and scrounging off welfare
e.g. the demonisation of the word ‘chav’ in the UK and this impacts on
identity;

• the old collective working class identity has now been weakened by the
  loss of jobs in the old manual industries and the fragmentation of the
  communities based on them so class identity is not now significant;
• age as a social characteristic is more important than class in creating a
  sense of identity – members of an age group share a common
  experience of growing up at the same point in history and therefore
  experience different events and social changes which can impact on
  social identity e.g. the baby boomers of the 1960s have grown up in a
  more liberal and affluent society than their parents and thus may have
  different values and attitudes;
• age is more important for adolescents – this is often seen as a difficult
  period because it involves an evolving identity and status anxiety; as a
  result peers often band closely together and create their own youth
  culture and sub-cultures which may give a strong sense of norms and
  values e.g. skinheads;
• gender as a social characteristic is more important than class in
  creating a sense of identity – early gender role socialisation via
  canalisation and manipulation instil a strong sense of who we are as
  individuals and feminists argue that this can transcend social class
  identity in terms of its effects on roles within the family, the workplace,
  etc.;
• nationality is now more important than class in creating a sense of
  identity – in recent times, and following globalisation, nationality has
  become a more central part of peoples’ identities e.g. in the rise of
  nationalism, Brexit, etc. and this crosses social class divides;
• ethnicity remains a strong influence on social identity and affects
  language, clothing, food and values e.g. in multi-ethnic countries like
  the UK communities such as the Pakistani or Chinese communities are
  often more closely bound by ethnic ties than social class;
• some postmodernists argue that class culture has been replaced by
  consumer culture – what we buy and own shapes our identity more than
  our social class e.g. in MIS the working class now have the wealth to
  aspire to consumer goods and activities they could not afford in the past
  and use items to signal status;
• in more open and socially mobile societies traditional class
  characteristics have largely disappeared e.g. the old upper class has
  now fragmented, class boundaries have become blurred as people
  have moved up/down the class ladder;

Question 2

What is meant by the term ‘ethnicity’? (2)

Answer 2

the fact or state of belonging to a social
group that has a common national or cultural tradition.

Question 3

Describe two ways nature affects human behaviour. (4)

Answer 3

• an individual’s personality may be influenced by genetic factors and
  hence their sociability, level of aggression etc. may also be affected;
• functionalists argue that gender is built upon sexual differences which
  are purely biological and this explains why women are expressive (e.g.
  housewife) and men are instrumental in their behaviour (e.g.
  breadwinner);
• some argue that males as physically suited to certain jobs because of
  their greater strengths (e.g. construction) whereas women as better at
  other jobs such as being office workers which isn’t physically
  demanding;
• sociobiologists argue that all human behaviour is directed by biological
  drives or natural instincts e.g. the desire for sex and reproduction;
• some sociobiologists argue that criminal behaviour may have a genetic
  component and that some are pre-disposed to
• rule-breaking behaviour;
• some argue that intelligence is more a product of nature than nurture
  and that it is therefore passed down from generation to generation;
• some believe that sexual orientation is genetic and thus more to do with
  nature – so whether people are heterosexual, homosexual or bi-sexual,
  for example, is determined by their genes;

Question 4

Explain how social order is maintained in modern industrial societies.

Answer 4

• fines, these are common sanctions used for minor offences;
• community service is a sanction where offenders do not go to prison but
  are required to do unpaid public service to make amends;
• prison sentences are used for more serious offences and offenders are
  locked up having their liberty removed;
• capital punishment is a form of physical sanction (often meaning
  execution) that occurs in several MIS;
• restraining orders is a temporary court order issued to prohibit an
  individual from carrying out a particular action, especially approaching
  or contacting a specified person;
• tagging (known as electronic monitoring) is used to monitor curfews and
  conditions of a court or prison order;
• socialisation into norms and values ensures that individuals conform to
  social rules;

Question 5

To what extent does value consensus exist in modern industrial
societies? (14)

Answer 5

Arguments for:
* functionalist theory argues the institutions in society work together to
instil shared values and social harmony;
* Marxist theories of ideological apparatus argue that the media create a
false class consciousness and in that sense there are still shared
capitalist values into society;
* different parts of a country share the same values, whether you live in
an urban or rural setting there are some shared values;
* processes of secondary socialisation see individuals learning common
norms and values;
* hidden curriculum in schools teaches all children the values of hierarchy
and respect for authority;
* a key role of the media is to reinforce shared values and norms of
behaviour;
* globalisation has led to a shared global cultural that disseminates
western values throughout the world;
* the formal agencies of social control ensure people observe the law and
thus demonstrate value consensus;
* equal opportunities and meritocracy in the workplace ensure that
people accept the values of achieved status;
* religion remains a powerful agency in society and religious morality is
seen in shared values in society;

Arguments against:
* particularistic values learned via primary socialisation are likely to be
different between families;
* Marxist and feminist theories argue society is based on conflict which
would suggest there isn’t value consensus;
* official crime statistics demonstrate that many people break the law and
thus don’t have value consensus;
* sub-cultures emerge which often have different values to the
mainstream society;
* societies are now multicultural and that cultural diversity brings with it a
diversity of values;
* values are constantly changing, things that weren’t acceptable in the
past e.g. same sex marriage are now viewed differently by different
members of society;

Responses that scored well often argued that value
consensus clearly exists because it is something that is taught to us through the various agencies
of socialisation. Candidates often then went on to discuss how norms and values are transmitted
through the family, school, the media and religion. In addition some focused on the existence of
social control which attempts to bring people back into line with accepted norms and values of
society, whether this be informally or formally through agencies such as the police and courts.
Some candidates described functionalist arguments regarding the necessity for all agencies and
institutions to work together for the common good though sometimes these descriptions did not
come back to the question of value consensus explicitly. The ‘against’ side of the argument
featured the fact that not everyone follows the value consensus, for example criminals and
subcultures. Also, many candidates used Marxist and feminist theory to question whether in fact a
value consensus exists at all as people are ‘brainwashed’ into a passive acceptance of
capitalist/patriarchal worldviews.

Question 6

Explain how value consensus is maintained. (8)

Answer 6

• functionalist theory (organic analogy) – social institutions work together to
  maintain social order and avoid chaos;
• processes of socialisation – learning common norms and values
  especially during secondary socialisation means that people have
  common beliefs and standards;
• hidden curriculum in school (e.g. hierarchy/respect for authority) is taught
  through the use of rewards and sanctions leading to social consensus and
  social order;
• through media representations which reinforce societal values and norms
  of behaviour;
• the use of peer pressure in enforcing values (of society or the peer group)
  via ostracism for example;
• coercion e.g. those who don’t conform to the consensus face serious
  sanctions e.g. prison and this sends a message/deters others from
  straying from the value consensus;
• the workplace reinforces expected values through rewards and sanctions
  e.g. promotion or dismissal;
• in the family via primary socialisation e.g. values of respect for elders are
  encouraged and reinforced;
• ideological state apparatus – the Marxist view of agencies of socialisation
  as brainwashing people into a common set of values which reinforces the
  inequalities at the heart of capitalism;

Question 7

What is meant by the term ‘imitation’? (2)

Answer 7

copying the norms of behaviour and roles
you observe appropriate to your identity or status.

Question 8

To what extent do informal agencies of social control ensure conformity? (14)

Answer 8

Arguments for:
* the hidden curriculum is a powerful way of socialising children into
accepting norms and values and thus conforming which is not conducted by
formal mechanisms;
* peer groups are able to use informal social control to pressure individuals
to conform, this is often via sanctions such as ostracism these can be
more effective than the threat of detention;
* informal social controls are effective in smaller group situations where a
social transgression may seem too trivial to involve formal agencies;
* the family is powerful when determining norms and values in society via
primary socialisation and conformity is enforced through effective rewards
and sanctions;
* the media has a large reach and is a powerful persuader making it an
effective form of informal social control, this can be supported by media
effects models where media messages instruct people to conform e.g.
Covid restrictions;
* according to thinkers like Gramsci controlling people through ideology
(informal) is more powerful than through coercion (formal);
* religion uses informal controls such as using role models (founders,
leaders) whose beliefs and actions followers are taught to aspire to and
imitate;
* in the workplace employers use praise and informal rewards and
sanctions (being told off) to keep workers in line with the expected norms
and values;

Arguments against:
* informal agencies such as the family are not always effective agencies and
this can be seen through areas such as domestic violence and
inadequately socialised children;
* formal social control is often backed by legal powers and is hence seen as
more powerful, they are able to coerce individuals and make them
conform;
* law enforcement officers have powers to control that others do not such
as the power of arrest;
* education uses formal sanctions to control pupils such as detentions/
exclusions which are more powerful in ensuring conformity than informal
sanctions such as being told off;
* agencies of formal social control such as courts are able to impose more
serious sanctions such as fines, community service orders or even
custodial sentences, fear of these tends to make individuals conform;
* at times of serious civil unrest the government can call on the army to
contain non-conforming individuals – the army is backed up by huge
power in terms of strength, authority and technology;
* some criminals are so dangerous and determined that only formal social
control e.g. prisons will be able to restrain them;
* formal social control is underwritten by government laws which are
universally applicable so conformity is seen across society;
* the boss in the workplace has the power to terminate an individual’s
employment or place them on disciplinary procedures – these are
powerful sanctions that make workers conform;
* religion may use formal sanctions to punish wrongdoers and deter others
from following their example e.g. excommunication;