3

Question 1

What is meant by the term ‘commune’?

Answer 1

‘a group of people who choose to live together and share at least some of their
property’

Question 2

Describe two types of cohabitation.

Answer 2

• a trial marriage – living together before marriage;
• a short-term relationship without real commitment;
• a permanent or long-term relationship – the same as a marriage just without the ceremony;
• two heterosexuals living together (with or without children);
• two homosexuals living together (with or without children);

Question 3

Explain how urbanisation has affected family life.

Answer 3

• traditional large extended family units have reduced and been replaced by smaller family units such as the
  nuclear family;
• functions that were once performed by the family i.e. care of the young and the elderly are now performed by the
  state and its institutions;
• face to face contact with wider family members is thought to be less than previously, replaced in part by
  technology e.g. email, skype, facetime, social media, etc.;
• young adults tend to move to cities leaving rural areas with mainly older people/children;
• families living very close to other families in shanty towns;
• nuclear families tend to live further away from their extended families due to the need to be geographically mobile;
• in times of crisis the extended family are unlikely to be the source of help and support that they once were as now
  the welfare state steps in;
• living in cities means the cost of living is likely to be higher and so families are likely to be smaller to make life
  more affordable;
• family life has become privatised (particularly in the nuclear family) with the home being at the centre of family life
  – this has led to factors such as child centredness/symmetry, etc.

Question 4

Explain why longer life expectancy can have negative consequences
for the nuclear family.

Answer 4

• financial pressures – having to look after elderly relatives for a
  long time brings monetary strains and worries to the nuclear
  family;
• there may be a greater burden for adult children who have to
  look after their ageing parents in a nuclear family with no
  support from extended family members;
• if the elderly relatives cannot be looked after in the home then
  there will be both financial and emotional stresses involved in
  placing them into residential care homes, etc.;
• if people are living longer then they have an increasingly long
  period of time to finance after retirement – will savings and
  pensions be enough to do this? If not then increased stress and
  pressure for the nuclear family;
• greater levels of loneliness and depression amongst an ageing
  population who may feel isolated from their families and society
  – members of the nuclear family feel guilty over this;
• longer life expectancy may mean some nuclear families having to
  consider a return to the extended family (where different
  generations of the same family live together) – this will bring with it
  issues involving space, care, privacy and money;
• the sandwich/pivot generation – women in the nuclear family
  may feel pressure to look after both the young and old;
• lack of space and time in the nuclear family means that having to
  also consider the needs of elderly relatives may not be possible;

Question 5

To what extent are alternatives to the family making marriage less
important?

Answer 5

FOR:
* marriage rates are falling whilst levels of divorce are high suggesting
that marriage is no longer seen as important;
* secularisation means that marriage is no longer as valued or as
expected;
* the existence of communes may suggest that marriage is less
important as this is where groups of individuals choose to live together
in a community;
* in many modern industrial societies there is growth in the number of
one-person households i.e. singlehood. This may show how this
lifestyle choice is reducing the importance of marriage;
* in post-modern societies people have much more choice over how
to live their lives meaning marriage is just one of many choices
available to them;
* there has been an increase in the number of households made up of
non-related individuals i.e. the idea of ‘friends as family’ and shared
households. This may suggest a decline in the importance of
marriage;
* cross-cultural examples such as tribes show how marriage is not the
norm everywhere e.g. The Nayar tribe;

AGAINST:
* whilst first marriage rates may have dropped, remarriages are
frequently seen showing how marriage remains important;
* divorce rates may be high but often this leads to ‘serial monogamy’
demonstrating that marriage is still considered important;
* in religious societies and communities marriage remains highly valued
and a social norm – alternatives to the family aren’t allowed in some
societies;
* agencies of socialisation still typically teach that marriage is the
norm;
* many alternatives to marriage i.e. cohabitation are not life-long choices
meaning that they are often the step before marriage takes place;
* in post-modern societies characterised by diversity, marriage can sit
alongside other alternatives as a choice that people can make – this
doesn’t mean it isn’t important;
* legal changes to the institution of marriage are happening in many
modern industrial societies meaning that marriage is available to and
wanted by more people i.e. homosexual marriages;
* it isn’t alternatives to the family that is making marriage less important
but other social factors instead i.e. media influences;
* it may be a fear of marriage that is putting people off i.e. it is too
expensive today;

Question 6

Explain why some families are symmetrical.

Answer 6

• dual worker families – both partners work and so both must contribute to
  the domestic tasks;
• role of Feminism in promoting equal rights legislation and a change in
  attitudes and gender expectations/roles;
• women are having fewer or no children today – this means they are
  freer to explore jobs and careers and less tied to the expressive role;
• better standard of living means that families can afford to buy labour
  saving devices/employ cleaners, etc. meaning that these roles don’t
  have to be performed by women anymore;
• rise of househusbands/female breadwinners – change in the economy
  to the service sector and the decline of manual work means that male
  unemployment is high and thus it is often women taking the powerful
  role;
• the privatisation of nuclear families means that families became selfcentred and privatized and so began to form equal partnerships as more
  time was spent at home;
• decline of the extended family means there is less pressure to conform
  to traditional gender roles;

Question 7

To what extent is marriage still the norm in modern industrial
societies?

Answer 7

FOR:
* socialisation through most agencies still promotes marriage as
something to be valued and as a social norm e.g. the media’s ‘cereal
packet family’;
* whilst divorce rates may be high, so are rates of remarriage – illustrating
that marriage is still the norm;
* serial monogamy (a series of marriages and divorces in a person’s
lifetime) is increasingly common, indicating that marriage is still the
norm;
* in religious/traditional societies and communities marriage is still
expected and highly valued;
* minority groups have pushed for changing legislation as regards
marriage i.e. homosexual marriages are now legal in many societies –
this illustrates the continued importance of marriage;
* in many societies, the legal frameworks support and encourage
marriage;

AGAINST:
* high divorce rates and levels of separation in relationships illustrate how
marriage is no longer considered as important or the norm;
* high numbers of people choose not to get married – civil partnerships,
cohabitation, single parents, etc. – this all indicates how marriage is no
longer seen as the norm;
* secularisation – the decline of the importance of religion in many
societies means that there is less pressure to get married and thus it
becomes less of a norm;
* feminists see marriage as a patriarchal institution therefore with the rise
of equality and women’s rights marriage has become less popular and
so less of a norm;
* heterosexuality is not the only socially approved type of relationship
anymore and so with increased diversity in society comes similar
diversity in terms of relationships – marriage is just one such choice;

Question 8

Describe two trends in divorce in modern industrial societies.

Answer 8

• age – those who marry young are more likely to divorce;
• class – middle class people are less likely to divorce than working class
  people;
• society – the divorce rate is high in MIS’s as compared to other types of
  society;
• patterns – currently the divorce rate has flattened off suggesting it is no
  longer rising;
• gender – women are more likely to file for divorce than men;
• religion – those with strong religious beliefs are less likely to divorce
  than those who are non-religious;
• era -in the UK the divorce rate is three times higher today than in 1969;
• country – the UK has the highest divorce rate in Europe – in 2010
  120 000 divorces took place;
• gender – women in the UK are two and a half times more likely to be
  granted a divorce compared to men;

Question 9

Explain how primary socialisation can lead to social conformity.

Answer 9

• primary socialisation is carried out by family members who have a close
  relationship to the child and so have a lot of influence over him/her, so
  leading to conformity;
• positive sanctions administered through primary socialisation ensure
  social conformity, e.g. reward charts, treats, praise;
• negative sanctions given through primary socialisation ensure social
  conformity, e.g. telling the child off, punishment;
• primary socialisation occurs in the formative years (0–5) when children
  are like ‘sponges’ and soak up everything they are taught so ensuring
  social conformity;
• processes such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley) lead to
  children conforming to the expected gender roles;
• children see older adults as role models and so imitate what they see,
  resulting in conformity;
• functionalists believe this primary stage is all about the transmission of
  core norms and values, resulting in social conformity;

Question 11

Explain why marriage is still important today.

Answer 11

• in some cultures, e.g. South Asian, marriage is still highly valued;
• frequently seen media image of the ‘cereal packet’ family promotes the
  institution of marriage;
• second and subsequent marriages are increasing in numbers
  (remarriage) and so marriage must be thought to be important;
• marriage can provide financial security and emotional support for its
  members;
• arranged marriages are the norm in many societies and cultures –
  marriage is the expectation so is still important;
• people do still get married – many now choose to do so later in life;
• more weddings are now civil not religious ceremonies but marriage
  itself still takes place;
• even though marriage is no longer a social norm or expectation in many
  countries and cultures, most people do still choose to marry at some
  point in their lives;
• minority groups have fought to achieve equality in terms of marriage
  therefore it must still be perceived to be important, e.g. same sex
  marriage legislation;
• many people still want to be married before having children, e.g.
  religious societies/cultures – reproduction;
• Disney/Hollywood romanticism of marriage and a happy ending means
  that marriage is still represented to be important;
• many governments offer tax breaks and incentives to marry therefore it
  is still seen to be important in society;
• functionalist views that marriage is essential for the successful raising of
  a family

functionalist view,
cohabitation leading to marriage, civil partnerships, changing legislation, religious importance

Question 12

To what extent can living in a single parent family have a negative
effect on family life?

Answer 12

For:
* New Right thinkers believe that the lack of a father figure in single
parent families leads to inadequate socialisation/lack of discipline for
children, particularly boys;
* functionalists believe that a family needs two adults to be most
effective, one as breadwinner and one in the nurturing role, therefore
single parent families are seen to be ‘broken’ and likely to create
problems for both children and society;
* single parent families are associated by New Right thinkers such as
Charles Murray with a child’s underachievement at school, criminal and
anti-social behaviour – negative effects on family life;
* the media and some political thinkers may demonise single parents, as
welfare scroungers who are only interested in benefits not raising a
child thus negatively effecting family life;
* single parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and can
thus be seen to be a burden on the state;
* many functionalist writers believe that single parent families have
become an underclass in society who reproduce without thought for the
consequences, without a moral framework and then inadequately
socialise their children;
* single parent families are often the result of divorce and thus all the
negatives that this brings, e.g. short term distress for children, financial
insecurity;
* children may be split between two homes, due to a relationship
breakdown, and thus lack a clear sense of security and belonging;

Against:
* are functionalists correct to say that two parents are essential? Lots of
single parents have family and friendship networks that enable them to
support their children both financially and emotionally;
* being in a single parent family is likely to be far better for the
child/children than living in an unhappy home or an empty-shell
relationship characterised by arguments and sadness;
* many children brought up by single parents experience no issues or
problems whatsoever – it is not negative;
* children brought up by two parents do not always experience no
problems and can also be dysfunctional as adults despite having two
parents – here a single parent family is preferable;
* single parent families may be the result of escaping from domestic
violence, threatening behaviour or abuse. Being in a single parent
family situation is preferable to this and not negative;
* increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies,
education and key professionals means that bringing up children as a
single parent need not be problematic or negative and is increasingly
seen as ‘normal’;
* reasons/effects may be nothing to do with family type and structure but
to do with social factors such as class and poverty instead;
* feminists believe that women have the right to choose how they wish to
raise children and if they decide to do so alone they should be praised
and supported;
* feminists see single parent families as a means for women and children
to escape from patriarchy and/or the dark side of family life and
therefore view them as a good thing;
* many children in single parent families have regular contact with both
parents and are not affected by their family structure;
* being a single parent family is often a temporary stage in life as many
lone parents go on to re-marry or begin another relationship;
* other types of families may affect family life negatively more than a
single parent family, e.g. reconstituted, single-sex etc.;

Question 13

Explain how social class can affect marriage and family life.

Answer 13

• in the UK the extended family structure was typically associated with
  the working class;
• lower class families are typically more likely to have segregated
  conjugal roles;
• middle class, educated women are more likely to remain single and not
  to have children or to have smaller families e.g. just one child;
• because divorce is now cheaper and easier, more lower class people
  are filing for divorce;
• symmetry within family life is more likely today within the middle classes
  where women are working in a career and expect equality;
• child-centredness is commonly associated with the higher classes
  rather than the lower;
• family size tends to be bigger in the lower social classes;
• middle class children in China often make substantial contributions to
  their parents’ living expenses;
• the higher classes can afford to pay for others to be involved in their
  family life e.g. housework, nannies etc.;
• lower class children are less likely to go to school/remain in education
  and are often working to provide for their family;

The better answers considered family form, size and
conjugal roles to good effect.

Question 14

To what extent is family life today based on gender inequalities?

Answer 14

For:
* differential socialisation – Oakley’s study of canalisation and
manipulation demonstrated how children learn their different gender
roles that can then lead to gender inequalities;
* feminists believe the family is a patriarchal institution that benefits men
due to its gender inequalities and gendered power imbalance;
* polygyny allows men to have multiple wives in some cultures – this
reduces the importance and status of women;
* functionalists believe that instrumental roles for men and expressive
roles for women offer the best solution for successful family life – many
people believe this leads to gender inequalities as men are seen to
have more power and status than women;
* many families today (particularly in traditional societies or the working
class) still operate with segregated conjugal roles whereby men have
more power than women;
* in modern industrial societies where conjugal roles tend to be more
joint, women still find themselves doing more of the laborious and dull
domestic tasks = not equal;
* women today often suffer from the dual or triple burden, juggling paid
and domestic work in a way that men don’t have to;
* Pahl/Edgell – men typically make the financial and more important
decisions in the home;
* men are still seen to be the primary breadwinner and protector of the
family, giving him more power than the woman;
* the dark side of the family – women remain the hidden victims of
domestic abuse;
* women typically work part time so that they can combine paid work with
household responsibilities = less pay and status than men;
* the perceived greater importance of the male role means that a family is
more likely to move to a new area/country for a man’s promotion than
for a woman’s promotion;

Against:
* Willmott and Young, the symmetrical family – joint conjugal roles are
said by many to characterise family life today, not inequalities;
* socialisation of children today tends to be far more equal and less
gender stereotypical;
* single parent families are typically headed by women, removing any
gender inequalities;
* same sex families and alternatives to the family (communes, friends
etc.) all challenge the idea of family life being characterised by gender
inequalities;
* men are now far more involved in childcare and domestic tasks than
ever before due to the rise of the career woman, the new man and the
househusband;
* privatised nuclear families are frequently seen and typically involve both
partners and children being responsible for the household tasks;
* inequalities in the family may not be based on gender but on other
social characteristics such as age/ethnicity/culture/social class instead;
* in a postmodern world, gender roles are being eradicated as we live in
a ‘pick and mix’ society where identities can be constructed and
negotiated at will, they are no longer fixed;

Question 15

Explain how families changed during industrialisation.

Answer 15

• extended families were seen to fit the needs of pre-industrial societies
  whereas nuclear families were a better fit during industrialisation
  Parsons, the ‘fit thesis’;
• in industrialisation institutions other than the family emerged who
  would take over many of the functions previously performed by
  families, e.g. healthcare and childcare. This meant the extended
  family was no longer needed;
• industrial economies required workers who would move to wherever
  the work was available – they needed to be geographically mobile.
  This was much easier for a small nuclear family than a large extended
  family;
• grandparents – family networks and wider kin may be involved in
  supporting the family in terms of childcare due to the rising trend
  for dual-worker families;
• urbanisation accompanied industrialisation and saw a large
  movement of families out of rural areas to the cities. This
  corresponded with the decline in agricultural work;
• industrialisation changed family roles, e.g. it created the
  segregated roles of the breadwinner and the housewife, childhood
  through children going to school;
• dual worker families – this trend has occurred because of rising
  living costs in the city and has resulted in a more flexible family
  structure, e.g. men helping out more at home etc.;

Question 15

Explain why so many alternatives to the family have developed in
modern industrial societies.

Answer 15

• one person households – these are an alternative to family life due
  to increased life expectancy leaving many elderly people as
  widowers living alone;
• feminists believe many women today are choosing to live alone so
  that they can pursue a career – another alternative to family life;
• after divorce or separation, it is typically the woman who remains in
  the family home with any dependent children. The man moves out
  and lives alone, so creating an alternative to the family;
• due to the high cost of living it has become normal for groups of
  friends/students to live together in a non-family household. Whilst
  this is normally a temporary arrangement, it is growing in popularity
  into middle adulthood too;
• communes offer people the possibility of living with like-minded
  individuals sharing similar norms and values who can live
  collectively. This allows for mutual support and assistance which
  may be an attractive alternative to the family;
• with the demands of employment meaning many people are time
  poor and unable to be carers within the family, institutions such as
  care homes and assisted living have become popular alternatives to
  the family for many people;
• secularisation – the decline in religion in many societies means
  that divorce has become more accessible as well as there being
  less family pressure to ‘start a family’. This means family ties and
  expectations are seen to be less important and less relevant
  meaning individuals can choose to live in a way that best suits
  them;
• global world/geographical mobility – travel and contracts abroad
  are now commonplace and for many this makes family life very
  difficult to commit to;

Question 16

Explain why many families do not fit the stereotype of the cereal packet
family.

Answer 16

 dysfunctional family – Leach – the media ideal is not possible for families
to really reach and the demands placed on nuclear family members can
lead to conflict and stress;
 dark side of the family – feminists talk about the negative aspects of the
family and how this can lead to domestic abuse, coercion and a culture of
fear;
 family diversity – as societies norms and values change so do family
structures meaning that the traditional nuclear family is no longer the norm
for many individuals;
 same-sex families, lone parent families and singlehood – many
alternatives to the nuclear family can be seen and these do not feature the
same ideologies as the cereal packet family i.e. they lack segregated
gender roles;
 Marxism –sees the nuclear family not as an ideal, well-functioning ‘cereal
packet family’ but asa tool of the ruling class used to oppress and exploit
the proletariat instead – so not fitting the stereotype;
 feminism – does not see the cereal packet family as ideal but instead as
an institution to cultivate and reinforce patriarchal norms and values –
therefore many families do not fit the stereotype;
 social class and ethnicity – social factors such as these challenge what
features are seen as ideal – for many South Asian families and many
members of the traditional working class, for example, the extended
family, not the nuclear, is the ideal therefore many families will not fit the
stereotype of the ‘cereal packet family’;

Question 17

What is meant by the term ‘polyandry’?

Answer 17

when a woman has more than one
husband at the same time.

Question 18

Explain why there has been a rise in divorce rates in modern industrial
societies.

Answer 18

• changes in the law make divorce easier and cheaper e.g. the UK
  Divorce Reform Act 1971;
• changes in attitudes – divorce is no longer stigmatised and is more
  accepted than ever before;
• secularisation – the decline of religion leads to marriage no longer being
  seen as such a sacred institution and marriage vows perhaps not being
  taken for life by everyone;
• decline of communities – in the past informal social control and
  community pressures/expectations helped to keep couples together,
  with increased geographical mobility this is no longer the case;
• feminists believe that women will no longer accept an unfulfilling and
  unhappy marriage and have higher expectations of it meaning that
  when it fails to live up to this they will leave – more divorces are
  instigated by women than men;
• as working women have become more of a norm they no longer rely on
  men for financial support and thus can leave and support themselves ;

Question 19

To what extent is marriage threatened by alternatives to the family?

Answer 19

• singlehood is a lifestyle of choice for many people today which does not
  include the idea of getting married, e.g. career women;
• singlehood can sometimes occur, e.g. divorced men who then live
  alone – this alternative to the family is now more commonplace and
  therefore may threaten marriage;
• communes are a lifestyle choice for many people who wish to live
  communally, perhaps based on religious or political beliefs. This style of
  living does not incorporate marriage;
• in many examples of communal living biological bonds between adults
  and children are considered to be irrelevant meaning there is no need
  for marriage;
• friends have become increasingly important to individuals and are
  thought by many to perform functions that were once done by the family
  meaning that we are seeing changing views about the need to get
  married and have a family;
• friends are increasingly making large commitments together, e.g.
  buying a house , that were once reserved for married couples – this
  may negate the need for marriage;
• in some traditional tribal societies, e.g. the Nayar, individuals do not live
  as families and thus there is no need for marriage;
• feminists have demonised marriage as a patriarchal institution which
  may put many women off having a traditional married life;
• the loss of family functions means that the state (alternative to the
  family) often plays a large role in family life today which may decrease
  the need for individuals to get married;
• in many countries and religions same sex marriages and families are
  not permitted, homosexuality may therefore threaten the institution of
  marriage;

AGAINST
* it may be secularisation that is threatening the institution of marriage,
not alternatives to the family;
* changing norms, values and expectations may mean that people do not
believe marriage is a useful partnership for them anymore;
* high divorce rates and high costs of marriage may be putting people off
from getting married, not alternatives to the family;
* in many religions and cultures marriage is still highly valued and very
popular, e.g. South Asian communities;
* marriage is evolving as societies change and this will ensure it remains
an important institution, e.g. allowing homosexual people to marry in
many countries today, allowing people to have civil rather than religious
services
* serial monogamy – getting married and then divorced and then married
again clearly shows that marriage as an institution is thought to be
important;
* remarriage rates are high, indicating that the institution of marriage is
not under threat;
* marriage is still promoted through the media as the most acceptable
lifestyle, e.g. romanticism in Disney movies;
* alternatives to family life such as communes, singlehood and living with
friends may just be a stage in a person’s life, not a lifelong decision,
therefore it is unlikely to threaten marriage;

Question 20

Describe two ways families may not be symmetrical.

Answer 20

• feminism – the family is a patriarchal institution that benefits men;
• domestic division of labour – the main responsibility for childcare and
  housework falls typically to women;
• hours worked – even when men and women work the same hours in
  employment, women do more work at home than men;
• tasks completed – the tasks men and women perform in the family are
  different. Female tasks tend to be dull and repetitive whereas male
  tasks are more active and fun;
• dual/triple burden – expectations for family roles and responsibilities are
  still associated with females, regardless of whether they work outside
  the home or not;
• domestic violence – perpetrators are typically males and victims female;
• single parent families – these are typically headed by females who take
  responsibility for the raising of children even when the father is still
  involved with the children;
• age – adults typically have more power in the family than children;

Question 21

To what extent does ethnicity impact upon experiences of family life?

Answer 21

FOR
* Afro-Caribbean families are more likely to be headed by females and
are often matrifocal in nature;
* South Asian families often have strong extended family ties and lower
levels of divorce and single parenthood;
* Chinese families may be small in size due to the one-child policy (now
three child policy);
* the increase of DINK families in China may mean that children are not
seen to be essential to family life;
* families in some traditional societies may be polyandrous/polygamous
and thus there may be multiple wives or husbands living in the family
home;
* South Asian families on average are larger than other ethnicities which
will affect family life – e.g. providing financial and emotional support;
* South Asian families are more likely to maintain traditional and
segregated gender roles than other ethnicities and may still conduct
arranged marriages;
* East European families have high rates of migration to the West which
may have a big influence on family life as new norms and values need to
be taken on-board;
* Eastern European children are said to feel more duty towards their
parents than those in the West and are therefore more likely to look
after elderly/sick parents themselves rather than rely on the state;
* traveller/gypsy families typically move around frequently meaning they
often do not go to school regularly and spend more time at home with
parents and wider family members;
* ethnicity can affect food, clothing, norms and religion, all of which are a
big part of family life e.g. praying at particular times of the day, being
veiled, eating halal meat, Jewish Shabbat family meals etc.;

AGAINST
* one social factor such as ethnicity is unlikely to explain differences in
family life – it is more accurate to talk about the intersection of relevant
factors such as ethnicity, age, gender and social class;
* to argue that ethnicity impacts upon family life is too deterministic and
too generalised – every family and individual is different;
* postmodernists believe that family life today is characterised by
diversity, therefore individuals can choose the kind of family life they
want, regardless of ethnicity;
* as so many societies are multicultural today, inter-ethnic relationships
and families are commonplace, therefore hybridity is likely to be seen
meaning ethnicity is less influential;
* Marxists would argue that social class is a much more important social
factor that impacts upon family life e.g. through both material and
cultural factors;
* feminists would argue that gender is much more influential than
ethnicity when it comes to family life e.g. gender role socialisation,
segregated conjugal roles, triple shift etc.;
* within an ethnic group family life may be different because of the
country in which the family lives e.g. Asian families living in Asia may
practice arranged marriage and segregated conjugal roles whereas
those in the UK may be more love based and egalitarian;
* the age of an individual may be the most important factor influencing
family life in terms of expectations, norms and values e.g. attitudes to
same sex marriage, views on gender roles etc.;

Question 22

Explain how family life has been affected by secularisation.

Answer 22

 decline in the marriage rate – family life may be more likely to occur
within a cohabiting or civil partnership relationship today;
 rise in divorce – this can lead to financial hardship stress and a negative
impact on children and parents alongside some form of shared
parenting;
 greater freedom and choice – interactionists would argue that the
lessening influence of religion upon family life means that individuals
have more freedom to choose the type of family (if at all), roles and
lifestyles they want;
 lone parent families – these may be more commonplace due to
secularisation as they are seen as less of a stigma – this may affect
economic capital;
 non-traditional family forms – secularisation has meant that the religious
influence on family life has lessened, leading to the rise of nontraditional families such as same-sex;
 the New Right – they link secularisation with a general moral decline
that has led to a growth in fatherless families whereby socialisation is
criminogenic or inadequate;
 feminism – less religious influence, means that many women are freed
from the burden and expectation of having to be heterosexual and enter
into a traditional family structure, often with segregated conjugal roles.
Instead they may spend less time with the family and more time
focused on their careers;
 decline in the birth rate – having children is seen now as a choice and
many equate this to a decline in religious values, particularly about
marriage and reproduction. This has led to more childless women,
singlehood and DINK families;

Question 23

To what extent are families still traditional?

Answer 23

Arguments for:
 the ideology of the cereal packet family encourages marriage and
nuclear families as the norm;
 most individuals still want marriage and children and marriage rates
remain high;
 despite divorce rates rising, rates of remarriage are also high, showing
that traditional families are still valued;
 in religious societies family life is both valued and expected and
ensures families remain traditional;
 in extended (and modified extended) families, the older generation can
be looked to for advice and guidance as well as practical support;
 children are still subject to the authority of their parents which is
traditional;
 in many families gender roles remain quite traditional, whether this be
segregated or non-symmetrical roles or through the dual burden/triple
shift;
 in families with children, it is still largely the woman who takes
responsibility for the childcare and emotional work and who may give up
paid work for this or work part time whilst the male fulfills the
breadwinner role;

Arguments against:
 Willmott and Young’s study has shown how family life is becoming more
symmetrical in terms of domestic tasks and roles in the public sphere
e.g. househusbands, joint conjugal roles = not traditional;
 a large amount of people will never marry and/or will never have
children – declining birth rate, singlehood, DINK families etc. = not
traditional;
 extended families have declined in favour of a more privatised nuclear
family that relies on other institutions and friends for support = not
traditional;
 same sex families are increasingly common and are now often
legitimated by law = not traditional;
 friendship groups are thought by some sociologists to be replacing the
traditional family structure and so challenging traditional families, e.g.
shared households, friends getting joint mortgages etc.;
 family diversity today means that there is no longer a ‘typical’ family and
so traditional rules and expectations are being challenged and changed;
 children have increasing rights in society and family life may now be
child-centred with children having a lot more power in the family than
previously = not traditional;

Question 25

To what extent has industrialisation changed family life?

Answer 25

Arguments for:  nuclear family – many sociologists believe industrialisation saw the move from extended to nuclear family forms – functionalists call this the ‘fit thesis’;  Parsons – loss of family functions in an industrial era saw less need for a large extended family as other institutions began to take over those functions once performed by the family unit e.g. education;  geographical mobility – modern workplaces need workers who are willing to move to where the jobs are, both nationally and internationally, and the nuclear family is easier to move;  urbanisation – this process accompanied industrialisation and saw the growth of cities as manufacturing and trade became of primary importance – so families moved to cities and did not have the same levels of regular contact with wider kin;  education – along with industrialisation came a focus on education and schooling which marked the beginning of the change in experiences of childhood – less of a working ‘mini adult’ and more focus on the special qualities and roles of childhood;  segregated gender roles – typically men became the ones fulfilling the breadwinner role leaving the women to look after the house and the children;  feminism and equality – industrialisation gave women the opportunity to forge their own careers and not rely on a man for economic reasons, thus starting the trend towards alternatives to the family and non-nuclear family forms; Arguments against:  Laslett – he found that industrialisation actually did not change family size very much at all – e.g. in England families had always been small and this remained the same;  Anderson – believes extended families survived through industrialisation because wider kin were needed to support moving to a new place, finding a new job, accommodation etc. – their existence didn’t change;  Willmott and Young – their research shows that extended families remained strong, particularly amongst the working class due to the support networks that they offered – this hadn’t changed;  gender roles – there is still typically a split between the roles played by men and women in the family, this has not changed and still sees the woman with less power and status than the man e.g. male breadwinner role;  structural differentiation – this saw the industrial family still being responsible for the two main family functions (stabilisation of adult personalities and primary socialisation) – this hasn’t changed;  children – the role of children may be less about work and more education based but children are still dependent upon and subject to the authority of adults in the family, this hasn’t changed;  other factors – it is not necessarily industrialisation that has changed family life but other factors such as secularisation, the emancipation of women and changing norms and values;

Question 26

Explain how family life can be affected by social class.

Answer 26

* extended families in the UK are typically associated with the working class who lived in close communities. The men were typically the breadwinner and the women took responsibility for the domestic and emotional work; * The New Right approach associates single parent families headed by women with the underclass. They believe this leads to a life of crime, anti-social behaviour, fecklessness and poor educational achievement; * many feminists believe that middle class women have a better experience of family life than those from the lower social classes because they have more career opportunities and are financially independent – they are not reliant on a man for their security; * money – families from a high social class are more likely to employ nannies and child-minders and to send their children to private/boarding schools. Some sociologists believe this lessens the bond between parents and children; * money – those from lower class backgrounds are more likely to suffer from poverty. This may mean parents have to work shifts as well as the children having to work part-time to support the family. Lower class children are more likely to leave school earlier and are less likely to attend university than those form the higher classes; * cultural capital – Bourdieu – those from the middle and upper classes are thought to have more cultural capital as their family life may be characterised by a love of reading, visits to the theatre and museums and opportunities to take music lessons and join sporting clubs;

Question 27

Explain why many people choose not to marry in modern industrial societies.

Answer 27

* careers – most people now grow up working towards and obtaining a career; this makes them financially independent and therefore marriage is not economically necessary; * feminism – has increased female power and decision making, making many women question why they would want to be a part of a patriarchal institution such as marriage; * changing norms and values – there is now far less stigma attached to singlehood than there was previously. This negates the pressures many people previously faced to ‘settle down’ and marry; * lone parents – this family form is far more commonplace now and therefore getting pregnant in many cultures is no longer seen as a reason to marry. Some women actively choose to be a single, unmarried parent; * secularisation – as societies become more secular and more about individual choice, so institutions such as marriage are questioned and fall into decline; * dark side of the family – research (e.g. Dobash and Dobash) has shown that marriage can sometimes be a breeding ground for domestic violence and abuse and therefore it loses its appeal to many; * urbanisation/migration – as individuals increasingly move away from their communities and embrace different cultures and lifestyles so family pressures and expectations to marry lessen and people have more freedom; * civil partnerships – these exist now in many societies and can act as an alternative to marriage e.g. for homosexual couples; * cohabitation is increasingly common and accepted in many societies and allows couples to live together without the need for marriage; * people may not marry for a second time after a negative experience of first marriage and divorce;

Question 28

What is meant by the term ‘step-parent’?

Answer 28

a person after remarriage who shares with their new partner parental responsibility for children from previous marriages.

Question 29

Explain how marriage can vary cross-culturally.

Answer 29

* monogamy – a marriage between one man and one woman and is the only form of marriage in many societies but not others e.g. in Islam a man is allowed up to 4 wives; * serial monogamy – when someone has more than one marriage partner during their life, but only one at any given time – particularly popular in the West which contrasts with many traditional cultures; * polygamy – being married to more than one person at the same time is acceptable in Islam but it is illegal in the UK; * polygyny – when a man has several wives. This is legal in most of Africa and the Middle East and parts of Asia.; * polyandry – when a woman has more than one husband at the same time. Fraternal polyandry is practised in Tibet (a woman marrying two brothers) whereas this would be seen as deviant in Western cultures; * group marriage – there are typically two or more husbands and two or more wives – approved of in some cultures, disapproved of in others; * same-sex marriage – changing norms and values means that legislation has changed in some countries, allowing same sex couples to legally marry e.g. UK whereas in other countries it is against the law; * arranged marriages – these are commonplace in some cultures whereby relatives are involved in the match–making process. In other cultures love marriages dominate; * importance – global trends show marriage to be more important and common in some cultures than others e.g. in many Western cultures cohabitation is replacing marriage whereas in traditional, religious cultures marriage remains highly valued;

Question 30

To what extent can living in a single parent family have a positive effect on family life?

Answer 30

Arguments for: * freedom and choice – postmodernists would see single parent families as a means for individuals to choose how they want to live their lives without regulation from traditional norms and values; * gender roles – single parent families will not see oppressive segregated roles in place which should lead to happier experiences of family life; * feminism –single parent families are a means to escape patriarchy and for women to have more power and control e.g. matrifocal families; * role models – single parents can be strong role models for their children showing how hard work and determination can lead to success; * economic capital – there are many very successful single parent families who are economically well off and who have strong aspirations for their children, ensuring they have access to vital social and cultural capital when growing up (Bourdieu); * gender neutrality – single parent families are often less stereotypical than other family units when it comes to socialisation and social control and this may help to reduce the damaging and limiting gender stereotypes found in society (Oakley); * dark side of the family – single parent families may be a means to escape domestic violence and abuse and can thus be a positive experience for family members; Arguments against: * determinism – no one type of family can affect how family life is experienced, that depends upon the situation and the individuals involved; * stress and frustrations – living in a single parent family may be the result of divorce or separation which can lead to unhappiness and anger amongst both adults and children; * poverty – single parent families only have one wage and therefore are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation than other types of families which can negatively affect family life; * functionalism – they believe that single parent families are unable to perform the essential functions necessary in the family – only the nuclear family can do this; * New Right – they believe that single parent families are part of the underclass who do not socialise their children adequately. This, they say, leads to educational underachievement and criminality; * lack of father figure – as most single parent families are headed by females, many sociologists are concerned about the absence of a male role model and the negative impact that this may have on boys in particular growing up; * less parental time – single parent families may have less time to spend with their children due to the pressures of work and not having a partner to share tasks with – this may cause loneliness and unhappiness for children who spend a lot of time looked after by others; * stigma – in some societies there is still a stigma surrounding single parent families meaning that parents and children are negatively labelled (Becker) which can be very damaging emotionally;

Question 31

To what extent are families necessary today?

Answer 31

 functionalist view – Murdock – the nuclear family is essential for both the individual and society as it still provides the irreducible family functions (Parsons);  reproduction – societies must reproduce new generations of children in order to survive and the family is seen as the natural place to do this, where reproduction is actively encouraged;  primary socialisation – children need to learn the norms and values of their society and the family is vital for this and for ensuring the culture is passed down through the generations;  social control – the family is a key source of social control and uses rewards and sanctions to ensure children conform to society’s norms and values;  care of children – children need to be fed, protected and sheltered and nurtured emotionally. In the family people are given responsibility to ensure that this happens;  status – families provide status for children as they involve children in a range of interpersonal and group relationships and networks;  regulation of sexual behaviour – all societies set rules about what kind of sexual behaviour is approved of, with whom and in what circumstances – the family is still the most socially approved relationship for this;  feral children – studies prove that without a family, children are unable to function as human beings therefore proving that the family remains essential e.g. Oxana, Genie;  Marxism – Marxists claim that the family is essential for maintaining and reinforcing capitalist ideologies;  feminism – feminists claim that the family is essential for cultivating and maintaining patriarchal ideologies;  New Right – writers such as Murray claim that the nuclear family is still essential as without it moral decay occurs in society e.g. crime, poor work ethic, lack of parental discipline, promiscuity etc.;  feminism – families only serve to exploit women and limit them to the domestic sphere due to patriarchy. For gender equality the family is far from essential, in fact it is a hindrance;  friends as family/shared households – these non-family based living arrangements demonstrate that the family is no longer essential as individuals can gain all the core functions from people other than parents/close family members;  communes – these challenge the very core of the family and demonstrate a different way of living whereby family relationships are not valued and yet happiness and fulfilment is still achieved;  dark side of the family – families are often a source of abuse and unhappiness for individuals and in these cases the family is definitely not essential, in fact it is harmful;  socialisation – this function is now often performed by institutions other than the family, demonstrating that the family is no longer essential e.g. nurseries, nannies, the media;  social control – this is now often done by other institutions such as education, peers and media, meaning that the family is no longer essential;  cereal packet families – Leach’s research demonstrates the negative and harmful side of family life and shows how the nuclear family can be oppressive and stifling, leading to mental health issues and general dissatisfaction – the family is clearly not essential here;  singlehood – this is an increasingly popular living arrangement choice and has not been shown to have negative results for either society or the individual – hence the family is no longer essential;

Question 32

Explain why sociologists argue some families do not socialise their children effectively.

Answer 32

* parental neglect/mistreatment – e.g. feral children – these children are unsocialised because their parents neglect or mistreat them e.g. Genie, Oxana; * dual-worker families – functionalists claim that the socialisation family function has been lost because both parents are working meaning there is too little time to devote to socialising children adequately; * loss of expressive role – functionalists claim that as many women no longer perform the expressive role their ability to adequately socialise children has been lost to other agencies; * underclass and single parent families – Murray and the New Right claim that the underclass do not socialise their children adequately because of the lack of a father figure, leading to them becoming lazy, reckless, criminal and immoral; * divorce – some sociologists claim that rising divorce rates are leading to confused and angry children who are missing the nuclear family as a source of support and adequate socialisation; * feminism – feminists claim that the family is patriarchal and therefore does not socialise children adequately but instead encourages gender inequality and gender-based roles and norms; * Marxism – Marxists claim that the family acts as a tool of oppression for the ruling class therefore it does not adequately socialise children to rebel against the ‘status quo’ that maintains their unequal position in society; * Leach’s dysfunctional nuclear family – it is too insular and too suffocating and therefore does not allow for adequate socialisation of children but, instead, to conflict and stress; * dark side of the family – factors such as domestic violence, child abuse and neglect all mean that children are not adequately socialised by their family;

Question 33

To what extent has gender equality in the family been achieved?

Answer 33

FOR * family diversity – same sex relationships and lone parents are examples of family types that allow for gender equality – men and women are able to negotiate their roles, share decision making and reduce power inequalities; * changing norms and values - as society changes so does the family. Men are now increasingly involved with childcare and housework (new man) and families are hence more symmetrical than previously (Willmott and Young, joint conjugal roles); * careers and work – as families are increasingly dual worker families so women have the same amount of power, financial capital and status as men and thus families achieve gender equality; * joint conjugal roles – roles in the family are increasingly shared between men and women and there is no longer the division typical of the past – this has allowed for gender equality in the family; * single parent families – as this type of family becomes more normal and accepted in many societies, gender equality is more likely as there is no power differential between partners when only one parent lives in the family home; * privatised nuclear family – this type of family has become increasingly the norm and has meant that husbands and wives spend more leisure time together and within the family, so improving symmetry and equality; * feminism – this ideology has become more widespread globally meaning that women are more aware of their rights and expect more from a relationship – this leads to increased gender equality within families; * divorce laws – it has become easier and cheaper to get divorced in many countries and thus gender equality is more likely as if one partner is not happy with the family/marriage relationship then they can instigate a divorce; * gender neutral socialisation – avoiding stereotypes and gendered expectations is becoming more common within families (e.g. in Scandinavia) and is thus increasing gender equality within the institution; AGAINST * segregated conjugal roles – men and women typically take on different roles within the family that result in men having more power and status than women and so leading to gender inequality; * male benefits – the housewife role expects women to look after the needs of men through cooking, cleaning, supporting emotionally and putting the man’s needs before the woman’s e.g. the warm bath theory - this prevents gender equality; * gender role socialisation – Oakley – boys are socialised to be tough, aggressive, active and unemotional whilst girls are socialised into domesticity, being caring and gentle and passivity – this differential gender socialisation prevents gender equality; * inheritance – a son or male heir traditionally inherits the family’s wealth so that wealth and power stays with the males in the family and so prevents gender equality; * the anti-social family – Barrett and McIntosh – the media promotes the idea that only the nuclear family can be the ideal, this puts women under pressure when they fail to achieve these impossible family-based goals. Women are made to feel that they are to blame when the family fails and this unequal pressure and strain prevents gender equality; * unpaid housewife role – despite the long hours, demands and stress that this role (played typically by women) causes, it is unpaid – this makes women financially dependent upon men and so prevents gender equality; * dual burden/triple shift – even when women engage in paid employment they are still primarily responsible for the housework, childcare and emotional roles in the family as well and so cannot achieve gender equality; * dark side of the family – women are often the victims of various forms of domestic abuse, coercion and manipulation within the family – men typically are not and this power dynamic means that there is no gender equality; * decision making – many sociological studies e.g. Edgell/Pahl, show that it is still men that traditionally make the major decisions within the family and this therefore means gender equality has not been achieved e.g. family moves house for the husband’s job; * pivot generation – with ageing populations being seen across the globe there is often a dual need for care – of both children and ageing parents simultaneously – this burden typically still falls to the woman, therefore preventing gender equality;

Question 34

Explain why there has been a rise in divorce rates in many modern industrial societies

Answer 34

* celebrity role models – divorce is seen as ‘normal’ in the media with many celebrities getting divorced and talking about the advantages of this – some people look up to these celebrities and thus imitate their actions; * secularisation – the decline of religion in many societies has meant that divorce is no longer considered to be sinful, therefore more people now get divorced; * lack of stigma – changing norms, values and morals make divorce more acceptable – the New Right see this as a part of the general moral decline in society; * ease of divorce – divorce is far easier to obtain today than it has been previously, e.g. the UK 1971 Divorce Reform Act that took away the need for the partner wanting the divorce to have to prove blame or fault; * cost of divorce – divorce today is far cheaper than it was previously, making it accessible to everyone in society, not just the rich, e.g. online divorces; * feminism – higher female expectations of marriage – women are now less willing to stay in an unfulfilling or abusive marriage and thus will get divorced if they are unhappy; * social media/the internet – many sociologists blame the rise of divorce on the way social media and the internet make it so much easier for people to meet other people and to cheat on their partners; * ageing population – many divorces are happening amongst older members of society and sociologists believe this is down to people living longer and thus having more time after their children have left home to enjoy life – they may outgrow their spouse; * decline of communities – functionalists believe the fact that individuals now typically live in privatised, small families removes the pressure from extended family and the community for couples to remain together, hence divorce rates rise;

Question 35

Explain how the roles of fathers are changing in modern industrial societies.

Answer 35

* intimate father role – less of the disciplinarian role and a more hands on, emotional connection to children and partner; * dual role – fathers are often expected to still be the main breadwinner but also to be more involved with their children and partner than ever before; * joint conjugal roles – fathers and mothers may share instrumental and expressive roles so that conjugal roles are no longer separate; resulting in a symmetrical family; * role reversal – in some families, fathers are playing more of the expressive role (e.g. househusband) rather than the instrumental role (breadwinner); * single parent dads – fathers are often the only parent for the children, acting as both breadwinner and carer; * same-sex families – same sex families challenge traditional notions of father roles and are typically more flexible in determining how the roles will be played out and negotiated; * new man – fathers are being encouraged to spend more time with their family and to engage emotionally and practically in family life, thus changing their roles;

Question 36

To what extent does social class affect family life?

Answer 36

* symmetrical families – Willmott and Young – found these types of families to be far more common in the working class than the higher social classes, perhaps because of their jobs being less rewarding and thus home life seeming more appealing; * work-centred families – these were typical of the middle and upper classes e.g. managing directors – men spent long hours at work in order to support the family and thus had less time to involve themselves in family life; * paid housework – the higher social classes are more likely to pay for domestic help in the form of cleaners, childcare etc. than the lower social classes; * marriage – those in the higher social classes are more likely to get married than those in the lower social classes; * divorce – divorce is more likely according to the statistics in the lower social classes than in the higher classes; * teen motherhood – this was found in Western societies to be far more likely amongst girls from working class families than those girls in the higher social classes; * age of motherhood – women in the higher social classes typically have children later in life (often to support university and a career) than those women in the lower social classes; * education – families in the higher social classes are more likely to send their children to good schools (sometimes private) and for the children to graduate from university than those in the lower social classes; * concerted cultivation – Lareau – a parenting style that aims to give children in the family every opportunity e.g. dance classes, sports clubs, tutoring, music lessons etc. – poorer families cannot afford such luxuries; * housing – poorer families are more likely to live in over-crowded, damp accommodation than the higher social classes and to require their children to work part time to help support the family financially; * DINK families – these kind of families are found more in the higher social classes than the working class, where the focus is on being dual-workers and enjoying a consumer lifestyle (without children); * postmodernism – individuals can now choose how they want their family life to be without restrictions, therefore social class has become irrelevant and does not affect family life; * globalisation – with the advent of digital technology a diverse range of families and lifestyles can be consumed through the media – this is available to all social classes and gives individuals ideas about how they want their family to be – which are not tied to social class; * feminism – women of all social classes have higher aspirations today (e.g. Sue Sharpe) and expect marriage to be a partnership – social class therefore does not affect family life; * religion – religious rules and expectations may be far more significant in terms of influence on family life e.g. polygamy, conjugal roles, arranged marriages etc.; * ethnicity – South Asian families are typically more likely to live in an extended family structure than other ethnicities, regardless of social class – ethnicity is thus more significant; * ethnicity – Afro-Caribbean families are more likely to be lone parent headed by a female and matriarchal than other ethnicities – this is more significant than social class; * gender – many sociologists (feminists) believe women still do not get a fair deal in family life because of it being a patriarchal institution, regardless of social class – gender is thus more significant; * age – the age of the parents and the children in the family is likely to be far more significant in terms of influence than social class (e.g. norms and values, expectations etc.) – generation gap;