2.1 Psychology Flashcards
skill acquisition (75 cards)
1
Q
what are the 6 components of a skill
A
- Learned - basis of ecisting abilitites, the practising of the skills and drills in some form of training will help produce a skilful movement
- Consistent - a skilled player is able to perform the task to the same high level time after time
- Goal directed - a player will practice skills with an aim in mind
- Aesthetic - they look good and pleasing to watch
- Controlled - the skiful performer is in charge of controlling the rate and timing of the skill
- Efficient and Smooth - the skill is performed without any wasted energy and seem to flow
2
Q
what are the two elemnts of a skilful performance
A
- Cognitive part - the skill requires thought before action
- Motor part - requires control and efficient movement
3
Q
what are the 6 skill classification continua
A
- Difficulty
- environmental influence
- pacing
- muscular involvement
- continuity
- organisation
4
Q
what is the difficulty continuum
A
- Left - complex skills involves high level of decision making and has large cognitive or thinking element to it
- Right - simple skills has limited amount of information to process, smaller cognittive element
5
Q
what is the environmental continuum
A
- Left - open skill is being affected by the environment, has to make decisions based on surrouding
- Right - Closed skill has less decision making becuase environment it predictable, can take time to execute skill
6
Q
what is the pacing continuum
A
- Left - self paced is at the control of the performer, rate of execution is decided before
- Right - externally paced skill is controlled by factors out of the control of performer who have to react the external conditions
7
Q
what is the muscular involvement continuum
A
- Left - Fine skill has small and delicate muscle movements
- Right - Gross skill uses large muscles group movements
8
Q
what is the continuity continuum
A
- Left - Discrete skill has a short time span and clear beginning + end
- Middle - Serial skill has several discrete elements put together
- Right - continuous skill has no clear beginning or end
9
Q
what is the organisation continuum
A
- Left - low organised skill can be broken down into parts or subroutines
- Right - highly organised skill is hard to break down since it is fast execution
10
Q
what are the 8 methods of practice
A
- Whole
- part
- whole-part-whole
- progressive-part
- massed
- distributed
- varied
- fixed
11
Q
what is whole practice
A
- Involves repeating the whole series of actions
- Gymnastics skills and games activities are easier to perform as a whole, the actions can be performed over and over to perfect them
- For example: gymnastic vault - to be effective the whole action should be performed in its entirety
12
Q
what is part practice
A
- Used when the skill is low organisation and can be spilt into sub routines
- If skill is complex it can be borken down into sub routine to allow mastery of the parts before putting them all together
- For example: golfer may work on the take away before adding the downswing and follow through
13
Q
what is whole-part-whole practice
A
- skill is first practiced as a complete then broken down into component parts then finally reassembled to practice whole skill again
- If any weakness identified in first whole skill can be imporved when broken down into components
- For example: meginner may be asked to try the full lay-up and the isolate various parts and eventually practice the it as a whole again
14
Q
what is progressive-part practice
A
- involves learning several sub-routines to form the whole movement
- each part practiced with the next link added each time, full action can be pieced together known as chaining or sefmentation
- For example: tennis serve broken down into number of sub-routines like ball toss -> racket prep -> serve action -> follow through
15
Q
what is massed practice
A
- no rest intervals are given between each component of the training session
- appropriate for simple skills that demand little attention so performer can focus on task after numerous attempts
- For example: coach put team of footballers through 1 hpour fitness session none stop
16
Q
what is distributed practice
A
- when a rest interval is given to allow recovery
- feedback, coaching and advice on technique can be given during the interval
- For example: beginners who can focus on the enxt part during the break or unfit athletes
17
Q
what is varied practice
A
- using different methods to achieve a learning goal or performing a task in different situations
- aims to provide the performer with the ability to adapt a skill to a range of possible circumstances
- For example: a basketball player practising free throws from different spots on the court
18
Q
what is fixed practice
A
- **involves a stable and predictable environment where conditions remained fixed **
- usually employed for closed type skills
- For example: tennis player repeat a tennis serve only
19
Q
what is the theory of transfer
A
that the learning and performance of one skill can be affected by the learning and performance of another
20
Q
what are the 5 types of learnign transfers
A
- positive
- negative
- proactive
- bilateral
- retroactive
21
Q
what is positive transfer
A
- This occurs when learning in one task is enchanced by learning in another task
- both tasks involve a similar action and require a similar skill set, as the performer develops feeback could be used to refine the task
- For example: learning a golf stroke may enhance by virtue of the fact that the player is a good cricketer
22
Q
what is negative transfer
A
- Occurs in the initial stages of learning where **one skill is hindered by the learning and performance of another **
23
Q
what is proactive transfer
A
- when a skill learned previously eefcts a skill yet to be learnt
24
Q
what is retroactive transfer
A
- learning a new skill affects a skill learned previosuly
- For example: netabll player returns to netball after player basketball so some skills may be affetced like footwork
25
what is bilateral transfer
* a learned **skill is transferred from a limb to limb across the body**
* caoches will always encourage players to use both sides of the body
* **For example**: left footed player in football practices with their right
26
how to optimise the effect of positive transfer
1. Offer a realsitic approach to teaining to allow ealry success and progress slowly
2. Maintain similar environmental conditions in both situations
3. Ensue practices replicate the performance environemnt
27
how to limit the effect of negative transfer
* Negative transfer is rare and mostly temporary
* Coaches should be aware and understand initial performance may drop so draw this to the performers attention
28
what are the 3 stages to learning
1. Cognitive
2. Associative
3. Autonomous
## Footnote
* for easy skills these stages will be moved through quickly yet for harder skills may take longer
29
what is the cognitive phase of learning
* 1st phase expierienced by a beginner who tries to work out and understand what is required to perform a new movement
| For example: Badminton - must undertsand how to serve and hit the shuttl
## Footnote
* **Trial and error process** used to develop **early understanding** of the parts of the skill
* Coach might use **manual / mechanical guidance** and **positve / extrinsic feedback** to offer encouragement and improvemnt
* must **highlight key coaching points**
* **visualisation** of the movement is msot effective if instructions are clear and simple
30
what is the associative stage of learning
| Motor stage
* 2nd stage where performer is practising, comparing and associating their movements with an ideal mental image or top level performer
| For example: player is now aware of hwat needs to be done for a serve
## Footnote
* stage where feeback occurs more an dlearner becomes aware of more complex cues
* vast improvement in performance
* motor programmes formed although skills are not refined automatically yet
31
what is the autonomous stage of learning
* 3rd stage of learning where skills become almost automoatic with veyr little conscious thought
| For example: badminton - player s confident and consistent with accuracy
## Footnote
* distractions largely ignored and cocentration is high
* more understanding on stratergy and tactics
* motor programmes are completely fored in the long term memory
* stage in this stage must continuously rehearse
32
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what happens the performers skill as they move through the stage of learning
* more automatic
* more consistent
* more efficient
* less conncious thought
* more accurate
* higher level of tactics
* more fluent
* better coordination
33
what is operant conditioning
involves shaping the environement to manipulate behaviour and recieving rewards or reinforcement for those actions
| example: golfer hit tee shit left will adjust next tee shot to improve
## Footnote
* learnt by trial and error - if response is correct performer is motivtaed to repeat, and thus if response is incorrect will be motivated to change it
* commonly used teaching motor skills
34
what are the 3 theories of learning
* operant conditioning
* cognitive theory
* banduras theory of social/obersvation learning
35
how does positive reinforcement in operant conditioning help us improve and learn
positive reinforcement os successful behaviours will strengthen the S-R bonds
| S-R bond is the link between a stimulus and a certain response
36
stratergies used to strengthen S-R bond in operant conditioning
* **Positive reinforcement** - praise after correct response
* **Allow early success** - at first easy targets will ensure success which develops confidence in performer
* **Mental rehearsal** - going over the performance in the mind helps develop an automatic response to the stimulus
* **Practice the task as a whole** - coach should allow the performer to practice the skill in its entirety to promote fulency in performance
37
what are the Thorndikes law and how do they link to operate conditioning
1. **Law of exercise** - repeating the S-R connections is more liekly to strengthen them, if desired response occurs reinforcement is necessary
2. **Law of effect** - if response followed by a 'satisfier' then S-R bond is strengthend, if response is followed by an 'annoyer' then then bond is weakend. Pleasant outcomes are more likely to motivate performer to repeat action
3. **Law of readiness** - performer must be physcially and mentally able to complete the task effectively
## Footnote
The Thorndike laws link to operant conditioning as it shows how to fully develop an S-R bond and strenthen them
38
what is the cognitive theory of learning
theory suggets that a performer **learners by thinking about and understanding what is required of them **rather than connecting stimuli and responses
## Footnote
* go beyond the association or S-R theories
* there are intervening variables
* cognitive theories are concerned with thinking and understanding known as insight learning
39
what are intervening variable in cognitive learning theory
mental porcesses occuring between the stimulus being recieved and the response
40
what is insight learning
problem-solving involving memory, previous experiences are used to help solve new problems
41
what are the 4 main sources of the cognitive learning theory to understand the 'whole picture'
* whole approach
* problem solving
* experience
* understanding
42
why does the cognitive learning theory support the whole practice teaching method
playing the game and learning along the way is seen as more effective than simply learning the skills in isolation
43
what are the 4 different types of guidances
* visual
* verbal
* manual
* mechanical
44
what is visual guidance and its pros and cons
* **learner can see the whole action and interpret it for themselves**
* most common type of guidance
* often used by performers starting out
| demonstration, playback of video clip, observe technique
## Footnote
Pros:
* provide learner with mental image
* draw attention to key points
* better for less complex skills
Cons:
* demotiavte learner if highly complex skill
* can overload beginners
* need to be accurate or learnt wrong
45
what is verbal guidance and its pros and cons
* used to describe or explain how to perform an activity
* often given alongside visual guidance
## Footnote
Pros:
* tactics can be explained
* highlight cues and key points
* feedback given immediately
Cons:
* players must understand basic terminology
* overload beginners with information
* lose concentration easily
46
what is manual guidance and its pros and cons
* coaches/teachers use 'hands on' approach to ensure safety
* method used when the skills learnt are dangerous or complex
| gymnastics coach supporting back walkover
## Footnote
Pros:
* build confidence
* eliminate dangers, reduce fear, increase safety
* give early feel for whole skill
Cons:
* learner becomes dependent on support
* proximity of coach may be upsetting
47
what is mechanical guidance and its pros and cons
involves the use of equipment to help support the learner whilst practicing the skills
| use floats in swimming to develop leg kick
## Footnote
Pros:
* promotes confidence
* ensure safety
Cons:
* learner become dependent on this form of guidance
* feel of movement with guidance is different
* doesnt get opportunity to correct mistakes in technqiue
48
what are the 6 different types of feedback
* intrinsic
* extrinsic
* positive
* negative
* knowledge of result
* knowledge of performance
49
what is intrinsic feedback and its pros and cons
* **happens within the performer**
* information recieved by the athlete as a direct result of producing a movement through the kinaesthetic sense - signal sense found in the muscles, ligaments and joints
## Footnote
Pros:
* focus on the feel of the skill
* immediate adjustments
Cons:
* demotivating if cant improve
* potential for misinterpretation
50
what is extrinsic feedback and its pros and cons
* feedback occurs from an external source can lead to improved performance and motivation
* 2 types - knwoledge of result / performance
| watching a performance back, listen to comments, score in game
## Footnote
Pros:
* motivating for begginers
* coach provide specific guidance on improvement
* reinforce correct technique
Cons:
* demotivating if not constructive
* unreliable
51
what is positive feedback and its pros and cons
* **involves information that rewards or praises a performance**
* helps strengthen S-R bonds and can be extremely motivating to the athlete
52
what is negative feedback and its pros and cons
* can be in the form of criticism and may be centred around poor aspects of a performance or results
* used to correct moement to make it successful the next time
53
what is knowledge of result and its pros and cons
* feedback about the outcome of our movement, its extrinsic
* information is provided to the athlete before or after the performance based on the result or individual performance
* positive or negative
54
what is knowledge of performance and its pros and cons
* concerns the movement itself and the quality of it
* normally comes from an external source but it can be internal coming from kinaesthetic awareness
55
what is banduras social/observational learning theory
* **behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it is reinforced with success, particularly if it is a powerful image performed by a significant role model**
* sport coaches use the fact that significant behaviour is often copied by using strategies to ensure learner copies desired behaviour
56
what are the principles to banduras observation model
| each step
1. demonstartion
2. attention
3. retention
4. motor reproduction
5. motivation
57
what is attention in banduras observation model
* learner must be attracted to the demonstration
* cues should be used to highlight key points
58
what is retention in banduras observation model
* once performer has accepted new skill coach must make sure it is stored
* information should be broken down into chunks so that it can be processed in the short term memory
* practice and repitition must take place to ensure that the skill is learned thoroughly
59
what is motor reproduction from banduras observation model
* player must be physically able to replicate the skill being learnt
* demonstration should match the capabilities of the observer
60
what is motivation from banduras observation model
* learner is more likely to continue to practice if they are motivated
* coach can motivate player by offering positive reinforcement in the form of feedback or rewards
| example: sport governing bodies have award scheme for young players
61
what is the multi-store memory model
* involves all relevant information and cues passing through the short term memory, rehearsed and encoded into the long term memory
* Sensory -> short term -> long term
## Footnote
https://images.app.goo.gl/Mu6m4QCuUK867koV9
62
what are the 3 stages to Atkinson and Shiffen developed multi-store memory model
* **Encoding** - involves conversion of information into visual, auditory and semantic codes
* **Storage** - refers to retnetion of information over a period of time
* **Retrieval** - involves recovering the stored information, successful retrieval depedns on previous experiences and how well encoded it was
63
what is chunking
* information can be stored in the memory more easily if it is **broken down into small pieces**, so relevant information can be focused on
* when giving feedback to performer, coach should present the information in small and relevant parts rather than giving all the information at once
64
what is chaining
* coach should link the information given to the performer
* first part of the taks should be presented before going on to subsequent movement elements
* process of chaning will help preserve the task in the memory in the correct order
65
what is the short term sensory store
| sensory memory
* area of the brain is limitless it **receives information and holds it for a short time** (less than second)
* streams of snesory stimuli/information are passed into and stored briefly in the STSS before being processed
* If information is deemed unimportant it is lost and forgotten and replaced by new information
66
how is selective attention used in memory
* **information is filtered using selective attention, this is necessary to avoid information overload**
* process of sorting relevant pieces of information from the many which are recieved, attention passes the information to the short term memory which gives time for conscious analysis
67
what is the short term memory and its features
* this part of the brain **keeps information for a short period of time** (20-30 seconds)
* it can hold between **5 and 9 separate items of information at any one time**
* if not used the information is lost or passed on to the long term memory for permanent storage
68
what is the long term memory store and its features
* once information has been logged into the long term memory it remains there for a significant length of time
* it has an **unlimited capacity** and can store a lifetime of information
* information is stored in the form of a **motor programme**
* there is a two way relationship between STM and LTM where **information can be moved from one to the other when needed**
69
how is information coded into the long term memory
* **movements patterns** are stored in the LTM and used by performer when needed
* **making a player practice the task repeatedly** the coach can enhance the process of storing motor programes in the LTM
* **apprasial and reinforcement** should be given by the coach as performers are more liekly to remember pleaseant experiences
* skills are more likely to be remembered if they are **associated with other items already stored in the memory **
70
why is rehearsal important for the LTM
* rehearsal involves going over the task in your mind
* it stimulates the brain and the associated muscles and so helps to store information in the LTM
71
what is the levels of processing model by Craik & Lockhart
* **concentrates on the processes involved in memory** rather than on the stores/structures involved (STM and LTM)
* it is the **meaning of the information that determines whether it 'sticks' **- depper the processing the longer the memory trace
## Footnote
put forward in criticism of the multi-store memory model
72
what are the 2 types of processing that takes places in the levels of processing memroy model
* Shallow processing
* Deep processing
73
# levels of processing model
what are the 2 forms of shallow processing
1. **Structural processing** - information encoded on the basis of its phsycial qualities (type face of a word or how it looks)
2. **Phonemic pocessing** - information encoded through sounds
## Footnote
* shallow processing inloves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold someoething in the STM) and leads to failry short term retention of information
* only type of rehearsal to take place in the multi store memory
74
what is the only form of deep processing
3. **Semantic processing** - this is information processed by encoding the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning ( link word or information to previous knowledge)
## Footnote
deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (images/thinking/associations)
75
what factors making memory processing more effective
* **rehearsal**
* **meaningfulness**
* **association**
* **avoiding overload**
* **organising information**
* **mental imagery techniques**
