Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

From Flashcardlet > RESS > Flashcards

RESS Flashcards

0
Q

When referencing, how many authors should be listed before ‘et al’ is used ?

A

6/7

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
1
Q

The only times you would NOT reference are:

A
  1. It is considered common knowledge
  2. It is your OWN opinion
  3. It is your OWN data/research
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is a stratified sample ?

A

Members chosen at random, but sample set into groups (strata) to ensure groups within population are equally represented, based on number of the population that makes up the sample

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

When is quota sampling useful ?

A

When time is limited, budget tight or detail not important

As can use opportunistic sample I.e. People who look most helpful in the street

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is quota sampling ?

A

Sample taken from stratified population until a pre assigned quota in each stratum is represented.
E.g, age range
Therefore not random!!

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Main disadvantage of interval sampling ?

A

Interval errors can be missed or an unusually high error rate can be detected, depending where you are sampling from

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What us cluster sampling ?

A

Used when ‘natural’ but relatively homogenous groupings are evident in population (e.g. Regions of the UK).
Simple random sampling is used within each cluster

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Explain categorical data

A

Can be nominal or ordinal.

Categorical variables can only be assigned to distinct categories and do not have a numerical value associated with them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

How could ordinal data be made numerical ?

A

Assigning a rank scale value to each category

NOTE: the data will still technically be classed as categorical

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is the difference between nominal and ordinal variables ?

A

Nominal = have NO natural order e.g. Sex
Ordinal= HAVE natural order e.g. Poor, good, excellent
pain has natural order in symptoms (absent, mild, severe) or the Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree…strongly agree)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What type of data would the number of cases of MRSA on a particular ward be classed as ?

A

Numerical discrete

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What type of data is age classed as?

A

Numerical continuous

NOTE: continuous can be grouped as discrete I.e. Age is often grouped into years- rarely used days, hours, seconds etc

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is relative frequency ?

A

The percentage of the total frequency accounted for by particular variables

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

How is frequency calculated on a histogram ?

A

Frequency = area of the column

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What does a low standard deviation indicate?

A

That the data points lie close to the mean

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

How is incidence rate calculated ?

A

Number of new cases occurring in set period/no. Of people at risk in set period (& time exposed)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is included in the epidemiological triad ?

A

Time-person-place

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Will Diseases with short duration have high or low prevalence and incidence rates ?

A

High incidence

Low prevalence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

How is mortality rate calculated ?

A

No. Of people who die from disease in period / no. Of people who die in period (of all causes)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

How is data adjusted e.g. For age, gender etc

A

Stratum specific rates - population split into stratum (age,gender), incidence calculated in each, weighting then assigned to each group & data adjusted accordingly

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

How is case fatality calculated ?

A

No. Of people who die for a disease In period / no. Of people with the disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

How are odds ratios calculated ?

A

Odds for disease of exposed group/ odds of disease of unexposed group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What does a risk ratio (RR) of <1 suggest ?

A

Protective effect

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

When can odds ratios be used in randomised control trials ?

A

When the RCT is dichotomous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Define dichotomous variables

A

The variable takes 1 of 2 forms (that are co merely different) e.g. Dead or alive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Type of data histograms can be used for ?

A

Numerical continuous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What is the use of inter quartile ranges ?

A

Able to form a graphical representation of probability distribution (box plot)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

In normally distributed data what measure would you use to look at spread of data ?

A

Mean and standard deviation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What measure of distribution should be used in non normally distributed data ?

A

Median and IQR
(So isn’t affected by outliers)
Distribution assessed by histogram

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What do 95% confidence intervals mean ?

A

If the experiment were repeated 100 times the results would fall into that range 95 times

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What is standard error a measure of ?

A

How reliable the sample population mean is from that of the population, so measures precision

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

The CI should not cross the value where the variable is said to have no effect. Where are the points of no impact in ratio and difference ?

A 
Ratio = 1
Difference = 0
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

When is correlation the appropriate statistical analysis

A

When both the outcome and exposure are numerical

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

If the outcome is numerical, and the exposure is categorical (independent groups) what is the appropriate statistical analysis ?

A

T test or Mann-Whitney test

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

If the outcome is numerical, and the exposure is categorical (non-independent groups) what is the appropriate statistical analysis ?

A

PAIRED t test

Sign test

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

A hypothesis proposed after analysis is which type of hypothesis ?

A

Inductive hypothesis - explanation as why two sets of info are related to one another

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What is a deductive hypothesis ?

A

A hypothesis proposed before analysis - predict what the relationship will be. You think that at least 2 variables are related to each other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

If data is positively skewed, which way will its ‘tail’ be on a box plot ?

A

Tail to the right

I.e. Q1-Q2<Q2-Q3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

When refining a search, what function does adding an asterisk (*) to the end of a word have ?

A

Denotes a truncated ending where alternative endings would be accepted
E.g. Teen* would show up teenage, teenagers, teenager, teens

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are Boolean operators ? Give examples.

A

Words used to refine searches, e.g. AND, OR, NOT

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Name two methods that are used to minimise extraneous variables when randomised not possible

A

Matched-pair analysis (subjects paired with factor of interest e.g. Sex, age etc)
Cross over method - subjects are their own control e.g. Take drug for a period and take placebo for a period

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What type of study is a census ?

A

Cross sectional

As looks at entire population at defined time assessing prevalence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What is Ansecomb’s quartet ? Relevance ?

A

4 sets of data with same statistical properties which look very different when displayed graphically - shows importance of graphical representation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

What is responsiveness ?

A

Whether a measure can detect real change (over time?)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

What is regression analysis ?

A

Statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What is a type 1 error ?

A

The incorrect rejection of a true NULL hypothesis
- false positive for alternative hypothesis
(too optimistic)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What is a type 2 error ?

A

Failure to reject a false NULL hypothesis
- false negative for alternative hypothesis
(Too pessimistic)

47
Q

95% of data lie within how many standard deviations of the mean ?

A

1.96

48
Q

What is chi squared used for ?

A

Determine association between categorical variables

49
Q

How is standard error calculated ?

A

Standard deviation/square root of sample size

50
Q

What is Gaussian distribution ?

A

Normal distribution

52
Q

What is Student’s t-distribution ?

A

A continuous probability distribution that is a little ‘fatter’ than the normal distribution.
Used to calculate CIs and in hypothesis testing when the standard deviation of the population is estimated rather than known

53
Q

What happens after you propose a hypothesis?

A

Test it - then reject and modify or not reject.

54
Q

Define population

A

Every member of a defined group of interest

55
Q

What is the only true random sample?

A

Simple random sample - population members are chosen purely a random

56
Q

What is interval sampling?

A

When you take samples at set intervals e.g drugs company take a sample of every 100th drug produced to check that it’s being made correctly.

57
Q

What type of variable is the number of a beds on a ward?

A

Numerical discrete

58
Q

What type of variable is weight or height?

A

Numerical continuous

59
Q

For what type of data would you use a bar chart?

A

Categorical and discrete metric variables

60
Q

For what type of data would you use a pie chart?

A

Categorical, may be used for numerical data

61
Q

What is cumulative frequency?

A

The running total

62
Q

How do you calculate frequency density?

A

Freq density = frequency / class width

63
Q

3 examples of measures of spread?

A

Range, Standard deviation & IQR

64
Q

3 examples of measures of central tendency?

A

Mean, median & mode

65
Q

Negative skew would result in the greatest spread in what quartile on a box plot?

A

Lower quartile

66
Q

Which type of skew would give these results; Q1-Q2 > Q2-Q3?

A

Negative skew

67
Q

Give two examples of wildcards used in literature search?

A 
? = one character or none
# = only one character but any character
68
Q

How would you search for eating (related) disorder?

A

Eating adj1 disorder = searches for eating disorder separated by only one word

69
Q

What phase of a clinical trial assesses effectiveness and dosage of drugs on a few hundred patients WITH the disease?

A

Phase II

70
Q

Two types of reviews?

A

Systematic - mini reports that are peer reviewed. Focus on specific topic.
Non systematic - provide reviews on general topics

71
Q

What is an erratum?

A

List of corrected errors, e.g. between editions

72
Q

What is a consensus study?

A

A consensus statement developed by professionals via a group consensus process that is intended to advance health professional and/or public understanding of a targeted health problem.

73
Q

In what type of paper/article/study would you write a short paper discussing any of these 4 things; updating readers on new methods, providing an overview of the topics in an issue, press opposing opinions or clarifying positions?

A

Editorial

74
Q

What is an integrated analysis of data from several studies?

A

Metanalysis

75
Q

How do you calculate prevalence?

A

= Number of people with a disease at a certain time / number of people in the population that time

76
Q

Is prevalence data more valuable in acute or chronic disease? why?

A

Chronic diseases as it is necessary for the planning and delivery of health services

77
Q

What is prevalence made up from? (combination)

A

Incidence (+), recovery (-) & death (- & - population)

78
Q

How to calculate risk?

A

Risk = number of new cases / number at risk

79
Q

In what type of study do you use a risk ratio?

A

Cohort - used to find risk factors (exposures) disease

80
Q

In what type of study would you use odds ratio?

A

Case-control study or RCT

81
Q

What is relative risk reduction?

A

RRR = 100 - RR. Essentially its the difference the new treatment makes to the condition (compared to old/untreated group)

82
Q

Range of values of Risk?

A

0 to 1

83
Q

Range of values of Risk ration?

A

RR < 1
RR = 1
RR > 1

84
Q

Calculate odds of an event?

A

odds = probability of an event (disease) / probability of the event NOT occurring

85
Q

Calculate Odds ratio?

A

OR = odds of disease for exposed group / odds for disease in unexposed group.

= probability of disease occurring in exposed group / probability of disease NOT occurring in unexposed group

86
Q

Which correlation coefficient is used for normally distributed data?

A

A Pearson correlation coefficient

87
Q

What correlation coefficient is used when the data is not normally distributed, when one or both of the variables are ordinal, or when the sample size is small?

A

Spearman’s correlation coefficient

88
Q

Do larger or smaller studies have a larger CI?

A

Smaller studies = large CI. Large studies = small CI (larger studies reduce spread of data and inc the accuracy of the result in relation to population)

89
Q

What do p-values mean?

A

P = probability of obtaining the results of the test given that the null hypothesis is true

90
Q

What does p<0.05 show?

A

That there is less than 5% chance that we got the result we did by chance.

91
Q

Which type of health prevention is this; prevention of disease by treating clinical cases, reducing disability and maximising function?

A

Tertiary prevention

92
Q

What term describes this sentence ‘using BMI rather than weight as a measure of obesity’

A

Validity = measures accurately what it is meant to measure

93
Q

Definition of reliability

A

Gives the same result on retesting

94
Q

What term described this definition ‘can detect real changes when they occur’?

A

Responsiveness

95
Q

If T statistic in T test is more than critical value = reject or accept the null hypothesis?

A

Reject the null hypothesis

96
Q

‘r’ is what coefficient?

A

Pearson correlation coefficient. Values lie between -1 & 1

97
Q

r = -1 then what is the correlation?

A

Perfect negative correlation

98
Q

Which Boolean operator would you use to search for synonyms?

A

or e.g anorexia OR eating disorder

99
Q

What is opportunity cost?

A

Choosing A over B means giving up B which implies the value of the benefits from A is greater than from B.

Opportunity cost is the value of forgone benefit which could be obtained from a resource in its next best alternative use

100
Q

Disease incidence & mortality are what types of health outcomes? Record based, biological and clinical outcomes or clinical and patient reported outcomes?

A

Record based

101
Q

Give examples of biological or clinical based health outcomes?

A

Lab results, BMI, bp. body temp

102
Q

Global ratings, symptom score and QoL are examples of what type of health outcome?

A

Clinical and patient recorded outcomes

103
Q

What does PROMs stand for?

A

Patient reported outcome measures - measure quality from the patient perspective

104
Q

What three key things should health outcomes be?

A

1) Valid
2) reliable
3) responsive

105
Q

Benefits of knowing health outcomes?

A
  • identify treats and procedures that work and which are less effective
  • identify national and international variation
  • monitor performance against targets and over time
106
Q

What is the purpose of the medical record, list 6 things…

A 
Teaching, 
National statistics, 
commissioning, 
Audit, 
legal, 
research and evidence.
107
Q

What is economics?

A
  • assumes resources are scarce
  • is about benefits
  • is about evaluation services
  • is about providing info to assist in the allocation of scarce resources
108
Q

Type of efficacy described as ‘obtaining maximum output from a set of given resources’?

A

Technical efficacy - is concerned with how best to deliver a programme, or achieve a given objective

109
Q

Type of efficacy described as ‘production that matches the consumer demand’?

A

Allocative efficacy

110
Q

Term used to described this statement ‘concerned with the fairness or justice of the distributions of costs and benefits.’

A

Equity - another criterion for allocating resources, who benefits may matter to society.

111
Q

Difference between efficiency and equity w.r.t health economics?

A

Efficiency looks at the total benefit without considering who actually benefits whereas equity looks at the distributions of costs and benefits and whether it is fair and justifiable.

112
Q

What type of efficacy does cost effectiveness analysis address?

A

Technical efficiency

113
Q

Does cost utility analysis address allocative or technical efficiency within the health care budget?

A

Allocative

114
Q

What is the threshold for cost-effectiveness also known as?

A

Willingness to pay threshold

115
Q

What is the NICE threshold for maximum willingness to pay for health gain?

A

£20,000 - £30,000

116
Q

Does all health expenditure have an opportunity cost?

A

YES

From Flashcardlet (22 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions