2nd half + Flashcards
(253 cards)
1
Q
Is infants having categorical perception for phonemes an Epi-phenomenon due to transnatal learning from utero exposure
A
No - as speech sounds can not be heard in the womb, the fetus only hears indistinct muffled sounds
2
Q
Is it true that categorical preception for phonemes a pre-disposition and humans are adapted to categorise phonemes
A
No - it has been found in non human species and also found for non speech sounds
3
Q
What does categorisation in the auditory system reflect (categorical perception)
A
auditory system is sensitive to discontinuities in sound
4
Q
Can younger babies discriminate between sounds from both their native language and a non native language
A
yes but these ability deteriorates when they reach 10-12 months
5
Q
Discrimination of ______ sounds declines over the first year
A
non native language sounds
6
Q
What presents the occurrence of a perceptual narrowing of phoneme categories
A
starting to be unable to discriminate between phonemes of a non native language
7
Q
relevant dimensions of auditory input become _____
less relevant dimensions are not discriminated and become _____
A
- distinctive
2. equivalent
8
Q
What is functional re - organisation in terms of the auditory system and language
A
baby undergoing changes in their internal knowledge of native language so they become more attenuated to their native speech
9
Q
What is a bi modal occurrence of a sound or word
A
2 words that sound very similar but sounds slightly different if in different contexts - the two words can be in different categories
10
Q
What is a uni modal sound
A
a word can be said differently by different people but is always recognised as the same word - appears in a singular category
11
Q
The ability to be able to hear the difference between these properties are driven by ____
A
the frequency that you hear the words/languages
12
Q
What is recognition
A
To be able to identify if the presence of ‘X’ was from in an event
13
Q
What is recall
A
being able to describe or retrieve from experience of an event
14
Q
What is declarative memory
A
explicit memory of event personally expereinced
15
Q
What is autobiographical declarative memory
A
being able to remember what happen to you and the experience you had
16
Q
What is procedural memory
A
implicit learning (memory for riding a bike)
17
Q
Did piaget think that infants had memory
A
No, he thought infants less than 18 months did not have memory
18
Q
Why did piaget think that children different have memory
A
he believe they lacked the representational capacity to do so
19
Q
What is infantile amnesia
A
the failure to recall events from infancy
20
Q
People seem to be able to remember events from ___
A
beyond 2 years
21
Q
What was the experiment to test elicited imitation paradigm and what did they look for
A
I series of actions had to be completed in a sequence and it was looked at to see if the children were able to remember the sequence of actions after a period of time
They checked to see if children completed action pairs rather than single actions as this showed that they remembered the sequence
The fact that children seem to be able to complete some of this task, disproves piagets theory that infants have no memory
22
Q
What is an amnesia patient
A
Someone with damaged memory
23
Q
Stability of recall decreases with age
A
false, stability of recall increase with age
24
Q
In terms of memory, what 3 quantities improves with age
A
- Stability of recall
- amount they are able to recall
- how long they are able to remember things for
25
How can encoding be detected?
Using non invasive technology that detects the change in electrical activity across the scalp to measure events related potential
26
what can non invasive technology detect (when used to look for evidence of encoding)?
change in electrical activity which captures recognition of props used in elicited imitation
27
In electrical activity when does the change occur after a stimuli and what is this called
400-800 ms
Middle latency window
28
When does encoding become more robust and how was this proved to be the case?
more robust at 10 months
response to similar props (electrical activity in the brain) is more robust
29
What are the 2 key areas of a latency vs amplitude graph (for electrical activity from the brain)
1. middle latency window
| 2. long latency window
30
The long latency window becomes stronger after _____ months
10 months
31
Is encoding a limiting factor for memory for infants
no, sufficient encoding is occurring after 10 months
32
When testing infants ability for storage, what needs to be controlled and how is this done
their ability to encode, by matching infants who are have the same ability to immediately recall items
33
What are the three different theories for infantile amnesia
1. Verbal encoding of memory
2. Organised knowledge
3. Emergence of self
34
Describe the verbal encoding of memory theory for infantile amnesia, is it true?
The idea that it is due to memory being changed by language therefore unable to remember things before language
Not true due to proof of pre-verbal memory
35
Describe the organising knowledge theory for infantile amnesia, is it true?
through organising knowledge memories are more easily stored and retrieved as they can allow you to create retrieval cues yourself
36
How can organising knowledge help with memory
1. allows predictable events for encoding as you know what to expect
2. sub events can be chunked making storage easier
3. retrieval is improved by using scripts - allowing you to create retrieval cues yourself
37
Describe the emergence of self theory for infantile amnesia.
the use of oneself to as an organising concept.
For autobiographical memory which allows you to start retrieving memory about your, you need to have a sense of self
38
As children get older (past 3.5 years) what changes:
1. The quantity they are able to recall
2. What they recall
What they recall changes - it improves in quality with more details being able to be given and become more specific
39
Children who come from ______ show an improvement in recall
families who talked about events a lot
40
why do children who come from a family who talk about events a lot, improve in recall
due to talking about events being a method of rehearsal
41
What is recall dependent on
1. rehearsal
2. exposure to those around you
3. if it is verbally reported at the time
42
____ children are able to recall more novel information
older
43
What is the construction of a narrative memory dependent on
the parental elaborative style
44
How do early infant (1-3yrs) remember
via experience
45
Ho do young chilred (3-4 yrs) remember
via language as they are more verbal and increasingly organised
46
_____ cultures present a more child-centre narrative
western cultures
47
____ cultures allow a more autonomous sense of self
western cultures
48
What is an eyewitness testimony
the ability to make a sound judgement or report about event that are personally witnessed or witnessed as an observer
49
What does the law want from a child witness
1. the capacity to observe
2. sufficient memory
3. capacity to communicate
4. ability to differentiate the truth
5. obligation to tell the truth
50
What was Loftus's point about memory
memory is not veridical - memory is constructed over time through recall and ellaboration
51
What did Lofuts's point suggest about semantics of questions
Semantics of questions can affect the retrieval of a memory
52
What is suggestibility
the degree to which children's storage, retrieval and reporting of events can be influenced by a range of social and psychological factors
53
What are the two theories for suggestibility
1. Children are inherently accurate at recall, just biased by external factors
2. young children are fundamentally more suggestible than adults due to their cognitive development
54
Which children are said to have more suggestible memory
preschool children - due to nature of cognitive development
55
Where are the 3 sources of cognitive bias in memory retrieval for children, which one is not true
1. strength of memory - not true
2. source monitoring
3. poor/no script being used for organising memory
56
Describe the strength of memory as a cognitive bias in memory retrieval of infants
If encoding is not sufficient the memory will be more susceptible to misinformation -
however this can not be the case as it has been shown that infant's memories are sifficiently encoded
57
Describe source monitoring as a cognitive bias in memory retrieval
memory retrieval can be improved if the origin of the memory can be identified
58
at what age do children show amnesia to the origin of a memory
until around 4 years
59
Describe the use of a script for organising memory
a script can be developed through experience and provide information on what to be expected.
If the script is 'loose' then there is greater opportunity for misinformation to be incorporated
60
Is it true that children are susceptible to cognitive bias
no - experiment has shown that false memories are lower for younger children
61
Why are false memories less likely for younger children in comparison to older children and adults
because 'filling in the gaps' requires increasing semantic knowledge, so younger children are less susceptible to false knowledge. whereas as they get older they are more likely to be influenced by previous knowledge and experience
62
What is interrogative suggestibility
caused by the misunderstanding of questions and interview pressures which can cause misinformation to be influenced into the child's response
63
When are children likely to be 'liars'
when they engage in false event creation via suggestive questioning
64
Are children fundamentally liars
no
65
What are the organising principles for memory
1. temporal and casual structure
2. language aptitude
3. elaboration
66
Is suggestibility of memory a developmental argument
no
67
What can memory performance be effected by
1. veridical (truthful) knowledge
| 2. external and internal parameters
68
What are key processes in brain/neurone connection development
1. Arborization (branching)
2. Synaptogenesis (connections)
3. Myelination (insulation)
4. Synaptic pruning
69
What are the two types of brain plasticity
1. experience dependent
| 2. experience expectant
70
What is experience dependent brain plasticity
this is why the brain is adapting throughout a person's lifetime, and gradually moulds through the experiences that it has
71
What is an example of experience dependent brain plasticity
auditory cortex (in preterm adapts to womb like noises)
72
What is experience expectant brain plasticity
when there are sensitive or critical periods of time when changes in the brain occur - time periods of peak plasticity due to the expectation of what type of learning will occur at this point
73
Give examples of experience expectant brain plasticity
1. imprinting in goslings
2. vision in kitten
3. song learning in chaffinchs
74
What type of brain plasticity does imprinting in goslings present
experience expectant
75
Who argued that there is a critical period for language learning
Lennenberg
76
Is a FOXP2 a gene for language
no
77
What did the KE family have?
Evidence of a language disorder (a form of apraxia) - a speech impairment, with difficulties in articulation
78
What are the signs of speaking apraxia
1. speaking more quietly
2. don't come forward with language (have the social cues but dont tend to respond with language)
3. Indistinct with phonemes - open mouth presentation
4. Don;t have the timing to pull speech sounds together
79
What was interesting about the patterning of the speech impairment of the KE family
it was dominant across each generation - a classic sign of something genetic
80
What did the KE family have, that appeared to cause the langauge impairment
gene mutation of the FOXP2 gene
81
When in evolution was FOXP2 modified
the evolution that separated human from chimpanzees
82
What is FOXP2 gene though to help with
tuning brain circuitry and therefore can adapt the human brain for language learning
83
children have a ______ - lateralized activity to their native language
left
84
_____ children show more language recovery after brian injury due to _____ of the brain
younger children, due to more plasticity
85
Is the brain built for language acquisition OR is the learning brain simply receptive to language input
neither one or the other but a bit of BOTH
86
What are the 2 stages of babbling
1. 6-9 months = canonical and reduplicated babbling (single syllable)
2. 9-12 month = variegated and modulated babbling (different syllables + pitch modulation)
87
What is the continuity hypothesis as babbling as a form of speech
babbling is a direct precursor of spoken language
88
What is the evidence of the continuity hypothesis for babbling as a form of speech
1. adults can hear differences between babbling babies learning different languages
2. acoustic analysis also shows differences between babbling of different languages
3. no 'silent period' between babbling and first words
4. difference between biases (patterns in moth opening) in babies babbling and smiling
89
Patterns in mouth opening for babbling is to the ____ and to the ____ for smiling
right opening for babbling
| left opening for smiling
90
when is the proto word stage and when does it occur
10-14 months when infants start to map the meaning of words
Intermediate stage between babbling and well formed words
91
What are the characterisitcs of the proto word stage
1. Children think proto words are words (mutz for milk)
2. phonetic simplification
3. replication of babbled syllables
4. unstressed syllables are avoided (mato for tomato)
5. fine tuned by correction
92
How many words does a child know by the 2nd and 6 year
2nd year = 235
| 6th year = 6000
93
rate of language development is individual but when may it be considered that a child may have a delay in development
in the 3rd year
94
What are the 4 stages of finding meaning in speech streams
1. identify common sound patterns
2. segment from fluent speech
3. grasp referential nature of common words
4. map from familiar sounds to novel objects
95
first words are formed from ____
familiarity
96
what can infant do at 8 months and 14 months in terms of mapping new words and meaning
1. 8 months: associate non words to objects only with synchronised movement
2. 14 months: associate non words to objects without synchronised movement
97
What is the Gavagi problem of mapping
how do infants determine the relationship between the word and the observation if the word is just generally expressed towards an object
98
What is fast mapping
the process of quick and automatic selection for mapping a word to an object
99
Is fast mapping specialised to infants
no, dogs also present fast mapping
100
During mapping there is no ____ or _____ and new lexical entries are _____
no retention or extension
| entries are fragile
101
give examples of situational context that can help mapping of meanings to words
1. communicative intent
2. scaffolding by the care giver: attention following
3. labelling
4. using salient cues (such as pairing the word with their name)
102
What does psychopathology mean
a term that implies deviance in behaviour
103
A change in behaviour can be expressed in what different ways
1. distress
2. dysfunction
3. danger
104
What is pervasive development disorder not otherwise specified
when a child appears to be on the spectrum but does not quite fit into the classical descriptions
105
What does ASD stand for
Autistic spectrum disorder
106
What does IQ stand for and what is it
Intellectual quotient - it is used to identify a child's 'mental age'
107
How is IQ calculated
IQ = mental age (when compared to the age that got the same test result)/chronological age *100
108
What is an atypical score for IQ for a child with impaired language development
< 72
109
What is the DSM-5
Diagnostic and statistical manual
110
According to the DSM-5, what defines a neuro developmental period
1. onset in the development period
2. typically manifest in early development, before school
3. development deficits
4. possible co-occurrence in development deficits
5. symptoms of excess as well as deficits - exceptional development in some areas
111
What is meant by someone having a learning disability
someone with a state of arrested or incomplete development of the mind
112
DSM-5 says intellectual disability is a 'disorder with onset during the developmental period that includes both ____ and ____ functioning deficits in _____, _____ and ______ domains
both intellectual and adaptive functioning deficits in conceptual, social and practical domains
113
What percentage of the population have a learning disability?
2%
114
What is the issue around specificity of impairment
what are the boundaries for calling something an impairment
115
What is a communication disorder
impairment in the ability to receive, send, process and comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems
116
What are the 2 atypical models of development
1. delay
| 2. deviance
117
Describe the atypical model of development of delay - what does a graph look like
where the child score is similar to children of a lower age rather than of children of the same chronological age
118
Describe the atypical model of development of deviance - what does a graph look like, and give an example
the performance at a task is worse than what would be expected compared to multiple age groups - they are outliers
example: dyslexia (discrepancy in reading)
119
Most cognitive processes draw on domain general or domain specific processes
domain general
120
How many live births does william syndrome effect
1 in 20,000
121
What characteristics do williams syndrome patients show
1. very empathic
2. over friendly
3. less stranger aware
4. affinity for music
5. poor spatial awareness (visuo-spatial skills)
122
What functions are remarkably well preserved in williams syndrom patients
linguistic functions
123
What is autistic aloneness
children with autism seem to be happy in their own company, not seeking social contact with others
124
How have the number of cases of ASD grown
was 4-8 per 1000, now 30-60 per 1000 and still growing
125
What is the classic triad of impairments for ASD
1. Reciprocal social interaction (friends as things)
2. Verbal and nonverbal communications are 1 sided and more literate (taking the exact meaning of sentences)
3. Restricted and repetitive behaviours (insistent on the same)
126
What are the 2 parts of the newer definition of ASD
1. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts
2. restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities
127
The following are examples of traits for what
1. indifference of abnormal social approach
2. one sided interaction
3. reduced sharing of interests, emotions or affects
4. poor at social relations/lack of interest in peers
5. no peer play or lack of creative play
6. poor at making eye contact
7. poor integration of verbal and nonverbal communication
ASD
128
ASD may be less obvious in boys or girls
girls
129
What false belief tasks do ASD patients fail and pass at
Sally anne task = fail
| story expressed in photos = pass
130
what are ASD patients impaired at
| deception or sabotage
deception but not sabotage
131
what are ASD patients impaired at
| proto declarative or protoimperative pointing
proto declarative pointing
132
what are ASD patients impaired at
| lateral expression or metaphorical expression
metaphorical expression
133
what is mind-blindness
the idea that individuals with autism fail to interpret mental states and actions of others
134
Do ASD individuals present
1. better IQ
2. lower IQ
3. spiky IQ
spiky IQ
135
What do ASD individuals tend to excell at
1. good rote memory
2. visuo spatial skills
3. musical ability
4. visual search
5. savant skills (academic/science/maths)
136
What is the idea that ASD indivuals are systemizing
they have preference for rule-governed behaviour - they draw logical conductive systems
They construct if-then rules and over apply these rules
137
What experiment disproved the systemizing theory of ASD patients
looking at their methods for searching for a light in a room - showed that ASD participants showed less optimal and less systematic search patterns - presenting poor regulation of behaviour
138
What is the mentalising theory for ASD
the idea of mind blindness - however this can not be the whole story due to 'fine cut' nature
139
What is meant by 'fine cuts' in social cognition
some tasks that are seemingly quite similar, can show a very large difference in level of performance
140
What is the most common pattern of impairment
delay
141
What pattern of impairment confers more insight into characterising impairments
deviance
142
Why should we be cautious when trying to 'carve up' cognition
because different domains can interact during development (domain specific ability)
143
Is passive exposure sufficient for language learning
no, social context is important
144
Sensitive periods for language learning suggest that language is _____
hardwired
145
Babbling suggests ____ with expressive language
continuity
146
What facilitates word learning
1. rich communicative cues through social and intentional cues
2. novelty
3. context
147
What is an epigenetic landscape
where the genes that influence development also depend on the environment to determine how they are expressed
148
How did the genome project show that the environment must have a significant role in influencing of genes
there appeared to be much fewer genes in comparison to the complexity of humans
149
What are the 2 primary forces that control development
1. genetic instructions in DNA
| 2. external component from environment
150
What is Phenylketonuria and what does it demonstrate
a genetic disorder that leads to sever brain damage - it is genetically determined but can be avoided if the child is kept on a special diet
How the influence of genes can be dependent on the environment
151
What is Epigenesis
the idea of development being the interaction between genes and the environment
152
What is genetic methylation
regulating process which controls the interaction between genes and the environment
153
Canalisation
idea of development as constrained epigenesis - some changes are highly probable (eye colour)
154
What is a zygote
a fertilised egg
155
What is the germinal stage
two week period that begins at conception
156
What is the embryonic stage
when the zygote has planted itself into the uterus wall
157
What is the fetal stage
the period that lasts from the 9th week until birth. it has a skeleton and muscles are capable of movement
158
What is the blastocyst
ball of cells that is formed as the zygote divides
159
what is the embryonic disk
the ball of cell that is formed by the zygote that is flattened out
160
What is a endoderm
comprised in the embryonic disk which goes on to form the organs
161
What is the mesoderm
the embryonic disk which becomes the skeletal muscles
162
What is the Ectoderm
the embryonic disk that becomes the skin and nervous system
163
What hormone masculinizes the reproductive organs
Testosterone
164
What is the neural tube
the cylindrical structure of the embryonic central nervous system - forebrain and midbrain emerge from one end and the other becomes the spinal chord
165
What is neurogensis
formation of neural cells
166
What kind of cells make up half of the brain
glial cells, the other half are different types of neurones
167
What can food deprivation during the first 6 months of pregnancy lead to?
schizophrenia and anti-social personality disorder
168
What are teratogens
agents that damage the process of development
169
what is fetal alcohol syndrome
developmental disorder that stems from heavy alcohol use during pregnancy, increasing the risk of birth defects
170
Why can a developing fetus sense stimulation
because the human brain functions even as it is being developed
171
What is prosody
the rhythm of speech
172
What development is related to increased connectivity between the neurons in different regions of the brain
cortical development
173
what are the 3 major generative processes
1. arborization: cell axon lengthens and branches
2. synaptogenesis: increase in the number of synaptic junctions
3. Myelination: insulation of the axons
174
What have more myelin than the cerebral cortex
the spinal chord and brainstem
175
Why does synaptic pruning occur
getting rid of connections that are not active makes the brain more efficient
176
Why are humans born with such under developed brains
1. brain has tripled in size and child would not be able to pass through mothers birth canal
2. brain can develop to match the envinronment better
3. developed by the unique social and psychological environment - humans are very social animals
177
What type of plasticity do musician and london taxi drivers support
experience dependent plasticity
178
What does qualitative change suggest about development
suggests that significant transition in development has occurred - different mechanisms are operating
179
What does quantitative change suggest about development
gradual improvements suggest that the same mechanism is becoming more efficient
180
What is a stage theory
theories that advocate development as a fundamental reorganisation of the underlying mechanisms
181
Give examples of an inverted U shape developmental change
1. memory
2. attention
3. speed of processing
182
Which developmental research design used repeated measures
longitudinal research
183
What is the most commonly used technique for measuring developmental change
cross sectional research
184
Which type of developmental research has the possibility of cohort bias
cross sectional research
185
What is cohort bias
where anomolies that are predominant in one group can distort comparison between groups
186
What is the naturalistic observational technique
watching a child's behaviour in their natural environment
187
Who was the first person to use experimental manipulation to produce scientific studies of young children
piaget
188
How did Woodward discover that children could infer the goals and intentions of an adult
Experiment found that infants looked longer when an adult went to grab something but then appeared to change goal - preference for novelty
189
What does VOE stand for
violation of expectancy
190
What is the violation of expectancy paradigm
when the anticipated outcome is deliberately contravened
191
Why are structured interviews problematic for young children
they may not be able to understand the question or may not have sufficient language skills to express what they are thinking, before 3 years they have a bias to answer yes
192
What is visual acuity
the level of finest visual detail that can be perceived
193
What is visual scanning
the ability to selectively move their eyes around the envinroment
194
why do infants have reduced visual scanning
they cannot selectively attend to multiple visual targets
195
Where do infants tend to engage their visual focus
areas of most visual contrast - the areas of greatest brightness relative to darkness
196
Give an example of a location of high visual contrast
hairline
197
What age do infants have
1. comparable vision to adults
2. colour discrimination
3. motion detection
4. depth perception
6 months
198
The faintest sound a new born can respond to is _____ times louder than the quietest sound an adult can detect
4 times louder
199
What age is the auditory system comparable to adults
5-8 years
200
What systems are coordinated to seek out multi-sensory events
visual and auditory systems
201
Who did studies find that infants had a preference for carrot flavoured foods if the mother drank carrot juice
Mennella
202
What system must reach a higher level of maturity to be able to reach or grasp
cortical system
203
When does perceptual development start
whilst in the womb
204
What are the three types of mental representation
1. physical representation
2. functional representation
3. semantic representation
205
What are the 5 stages of perception
1. stimulus
2. sensory representation
3. perceptual process
4. perceptual representation
5. cognition
206
What evidence suggest that infants are able to represent perceptual constancies
size constancy experiment - babies are aware of the constant size and shape of an object despite the change in retina stimuli
207
Can infants tell the difference between acute and obtuse angles
yes
208
What is cross modal perception
the capacity to detect correspondences of different features in the world from different sensory modalities - combining different representations from different sensory events (from 4 months)
209
What are reflexes
innate, unlearnt, specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory simultation
210
What is the rooting reflex
tendency to suck any object that enters thier mouth
211
What part of the brain are reflexes supported by
sub cortical brain mechanisms
212
What causes many reflexes that are present at birth to disappear
development of the cortex
213
What is the grasp reflex
any object in the hand will be firmly grasped
214
What is meant by motor control coming from intrinsic and extrinsic influences and what is happening
intrinsic - the cortex maturing (nature)
| extrinsic - requires environmental factors to stimulate it
215
What is stereopsis
the perception depth by combining the images from each eye
216
What does the perception of depth rely on
cortical mechanisms
217
Why is perception of depth not found in infants under 3 months
due to the visual cortex not being sufficiently matured
218
What are affordances
the potential for possible actions by agents acting on the environment - infants explore their environment looking for affordances to discover what is possible
219
Who said 'we must perceive in order to move, but we must also move in order to perceive'
Gibson
220
According to piaget how many sequential stages does the child pass through
4
221
What is cognitive development
ongoing process where infants develop, apply and adjust their schemas as they build an understanding of the world
222
Describe Piaget's sensorimotor stage
infant experiences world through movement and senses, developing schemas which can then be used to predict and control what will happen in novel situations
223
In what stage does a child start to have understanding of object peramence
sensorimotor
224
At what stage in piagets developmental stage theory does a child start to understand conservation of physical properties
Concrete operational
225
What is the problem with basing findings on VOE techniques
not clear if they are consciously aware of or understand the knowledge they appear to reveal
226
Children in the pre-operational stage would fail which task
being able to recognise that a line has the same amount of counters if it was extended to be longer in length
227
What do children understand if they understand conservation
the notion that the quantitative properties of an object are invariant despite changes in the object's appearance
228
What were piagets 2 suggestions as to why a child is not able to grasp conservation
1. centration - tendency to focus on just one property of an object and excluding others
2. fail to think about reversibility
229
What stage of piagets stage theory does this describe:
children realise that their minds contain mental representations that refer to things in the world and that some mental representations have no physical referent at all
formal operational stage
230
What is siegler's overlapping wave theory
children have the ability to approach a single problem in different ways, enabling them to develop new strategies to then tackle new situations
231
what is the deferred imitation paradigm
where the infant imitates an event that was demonstrated sometime earlier (demonstrating LTM)
232
Is language a reason for childhood amnesia
not the only reason if it is a reason at all (probably not)
233
at what age is there a significant improvement in the number of a facts a child can recall and remembering the source of the fact
4 to 6 years
234
Why may the development of memory be gradual over time
because different types of memory are dependent on different neural circuits which mature at different speeds
235
Which types of memory appear much earlier and why
implicit and procedural knowledge appear earlier than autobiographical, explicit and source memory as the later require frontal cortex structures
236
What is casual reasoning
when we infer that events happening close together in time and space are linked in some casual way
237
How do children use casual reasoning in their development
children use their experience of event to infer unobservable sequences and predict future outcomes
238
How does casual reasoning vary between older and younger children
older children give greater consideration to the similarity of preceding events and outcomes to their timing
239
How does core knowledge theories differ from piagetian and information processing theories
they argue that the child is born with a certain hard wired understanding about the world rather than just the general tool to acquire understanding
240
What theory proposes that children enter the wold with both general learning mechanisms and specialised mechanisms for solving specific problems (swiss army knife analogy)
Core knowledge theory
241
Core knowledge principles _______ over a lifetime and _________
do not change and do not need to be learnt
242
What are intuitive theories
rudimentary frameworks that are not explicity taught but explain related aspects of the world
243
Are intuitive theories innate
no, but the mechanisms to generate them are
244
Which answers are more accessible:
1. answers based on intuitive reasoning
2. answers derived from education
answers based on intuitive reasoning
245
What is psychological essentialism
the belief that things in nature (in particular living things) are what they are because of some inner property or essence
246
Describing a dog as having dogginess is an exanple of what
psychological essentialism
247
Between 6 and 13 connections between which part of the brain, rapidly multiply but then stop around the time that the critical period for learning a language ends
temporal lobe and parietal lobe
248
What lobe is for language
temporal lobe
249
What lobe is for spatial relations
parietal lobe
250
which connections in your brain deteriorate most quickly with age
pre-frontal cortex
251
Which have the most pronounced decline with old age
1. working memory or LTM memory
2. semantic or episodic
3. retrieval or recognition
1. working memory
2. episodic
3. retrieval
252
What is the socio-emotional slectivity thoery
younger adults are oriented towards acquisition of information they will be useful to them in the future where as older adults are more oriented towards info that brings emotional satisfaction in the present
253
What are feral children
children raised in isolation from society
