Lecture 1 Flashcards
(339 cards)
1
Q
What was the name of the wild boy of Aveyron
A
Victor
2
Q
Why were people interested in studying Victor (the wild boy from aveyron)?
A
because the boy grew up outside of society
3
Q
What impairment did Victor show? (the wild boy from aveyron)
A
Language impairment
4
Q
What idea did John Locke present?
A
The idea of growing up from a blank slate and everything you become is due to what you experience
5
Q
Who had the idea of growing up from a blank slate and everything you become is due to what you experience
A
John Locke
6
Q
Who believed that there is some inherent qualities for development
A
Rousseau
7
Q
What did Rosseau believe
A
There are some inherent qualities for development
8
Q
Who are the two main figures of the nature vs nuture debate?
A
Plato (nativism) and Aristotle (environmental)
9
Q
Who is the main figure of nativism
A
Plato
10
Q
Who is the main figure of the nuture debate
A
Aristotle
11
Q
What are the two main objectives in modern developmental psychology?
A
- describe change
2. describe why change is occuring
12
Q
Why are their issues around studying young children?
A
They are unable to necessarily answer questions or participate /follow directions for a study
13
Q
What is the visual preference paradigm
A
The pattern that a you can have a sense of what a child is paying attention to, through what they are looking at
14
Q
What is Habituation?
A
Habituation is where there is a decline of interest
15
Q
How can habituation be used and what can it be used to show
A
it shows the decline of interest and the preference for novelty. This can reveal the extent at which information is being processed, encoded and remembered
16
Q
What it the violation of expectancy?
A
A way of revealing if something is going against what were you were going to happen
17
Q
What can the violation of expectancy be used to reveal?
A
It can reveal what you were assuming was going to happen
18
Q
Who used the clincial method of observe and intervene
A
Piaget
19
Q
What is the observe and intervene clinical method
A
Where you study and systematically change things and record the reaction.
20
Q
What does it mean to say that babies are actively processing the world around them?
A
They are taking in and analysing the world
21
Q
Who showed that babies were actively processing the world and how?
A
Fantz - through showing that babies had preferences for some objects over others
22
Q
How was habituation used to study language in a new born
A
The baby was habituated to a language sound. The rate of sucking then changed after a new sound was played
23
Q
How can the rate of sucking be used
A
After habituation it can be used to measure if there is a change in interest of a baby
24
Q
What is a non invasive neuroscience technique used on children
A
Infant electroencepalography EEG
25
What does EEG stand for
Electroencepalography
26
What are the 2 types of developmental research designs?
1. Longitudinal research
| 2. Cross sectional research
27
What is longitudinal research?
small sample of children that are studied over long period of time
28
What is cross sectional research?
choose a point in time and look at children across different range of ages
29
What research design is more expensive but porwerful
longitudinal
30
What are the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal research
Powerful
expensive
high drop out rate
might not be representative due to small number of participants
31
What are the advantages and disadvantages of cross sectional research
More common
Not really developmental and is wont show the mechanism for change
problems due to cohort bias
averaging across individuals
32
Cross spurts would not be presented by what type of research design?
Cross sectional
33
What are the 5 different developmental patterns/trajectories
1. Continuous increasing
2. Continuous decreasing
3. Step like/stage like
4. Inverted U shape
5. Upright U shape
34
What type of developmental function is the stepping reflex an example of
U shaped function
35
What is a upright U shaped function
It is where a child ability is good when they are young, then it drops off, before returning later on in development
36
What is an example of an upright U shaped function
The stepping reflex
37
Why is it thought that the stepping reflex drops off at around 3 months before returning
Due to the childs legs being to heavy and further muscle development is required before they have adequate amount of control to present the stepping reflex again
38
What is the 3rd variable problem
This is where a correlation has been presented by 2 variable, however the correlation may actually be due to a 3rd variable that has not yet been identified
39
What was the experiment by Judy Deloache that indicated that infants are unable to distinguish between representations and real objects?
Infants were shown a picture and they would try and grasp it like a it were real
40
What is the independent variable in an experiement
The variable that is changed
41
What is the dependent variable in an experiement
The variable that is measured/observed
42
What are the 2 views for the origin of change
.1. Organismic world view
| 2. Mechanistic world view
43
What is the organismic world view for the origin of change
Change is intrinsic/internal
Emphasis on organic change being driven by internal mechanisms that drive the developmental process
Linked to nativism
44
What is the mechanistic world view for the origin of change
input is recived from the environment leading to change by exogenous and external factors. Linked to behaviourism
45
What world view for the origin of change is closely linked to behaviourism
Mechanistic
46
What world view for the origin of change is closely linked to nativism
Organismic
47
What are the two theories for the nature of change
1. Continuous (Core theory)
| 2. Discontinuous (Stage theory)
48
What is continuous nature of change (core theory)
No essential changes occur in the underlying structures
| Qualitative change
49
What is discontinuous nature of change (stage theory)
Development undergoes restructuring where each stage is significantly different from the other
Quantative change
50
What type of change does the sensory and perceptual systems see?
Continuous change
51
What type of change do social systems see
Discontinuous change
52
What type of change is qualitative
Continuous
53
What type of change is quantitative
Discontinuous
54
Which psychologist saw development as a stage theory
Piaget
55
Who was a stage theorist
Piaget
56
What 4 aspects of development did Piaget suggest
1. Biological
2. Invariant sequences
3. Universal
4. Maturational
57
What does it meant by development being biological and who thought this
There is a fundamental reorganisation of the brain, Piaget
58
What does it meant by development having invariant sequences and who thought this
transitions and not random, they are preset and everyone follows the same sequence, piaget
59
What does it meant by development being universal and who thought this
every child undergoes the same sequences at the same rate irrespective of the country of birth, piaget
60
What does it meant by development being Maturational and who thought this
It is not just experience, there are also intrinsic constraints, piaget
61
What is the Waddington's epigenetic lanscape
visual metaphor of how the genes are interacting with the environment
62
What is meant by Epigenesis
The interaction between genes and the environment
63
What is meant by Canalisation
extent to which development is constrained by epigensis
64
What does the ball traveling through the waddington epigenetic lanscape represent
How it can be easy or harder for the pathway (with the outcome dictated by genes) can vary and be effected by the landscape (environment)
65
How does a sea squirt support the argument that the brain is needed to navigate around the world
The sea squirt absorbs its own brain once it has located somewhere to settle
66
What is perception
Taking the raw sensory inputs and organising them into representations that can then be used by the brain
67
Who thought that newborns had a chaotic experience in terms of perception
William James
68
What do empiricists believe?
little is built in and that organisation emerges from experience
69
Who was lead figure for empiricists
Aristotle
70
Do babies have a preference for pictures that look like faces?
yes
71
What did Mark Johnson find about a babies preference for faces
It it not the amount of pattern but the configuration of the face that the baby recognises
72
What does the baby recognise about faces? Pattern amount or configouration
configuration
73
How much can a new born see in comparison to an asult
```
adult = 30 cyc/deg
infant = 1 cyc/deg, reaches adult level at 6 months
```
74
Why do we scan scenes
rapidly scanning complex scenes allow us to pick up all the detail which a picture can then be built up from
75
Why do newborns have a limited ability to scan
to move your eye around voluntarily requires the cortex
76
Where is higher level of processing completed in the brain
Cortex
77
Which brain systems are more mature in new borns
Sub cortical systems
78
Which are more mature in new borns? sub
| cortical systems or the cortex
sub cortical systems
79
What is sticky fixation
where an infant finds it difficult to unlock their gaze
80
What can influence food preferences in infants
amniotic fluid which can take on the taste of something that the mother has eaten
81
What is the evolutionary bias in terms of taste/smell
infants prefer sweetness they present more calorific foods, where as they dont like sour tastes
82
What can baby massage do
Help release a hormone which causes growth - they need to be touch and held to thrive
83
Are newborns able to understand that a moving object is the same as when it is still
yes
84
Do new borns show perceptual constancy
yes
85
What is perceptual constancy
when an object moves further away they appear smaller but physically they are the same size
86
Do newborns show shape constancy
yes
87
Can infants perceptually categorise
yes
88
What is perceptual categorisation
being able to develop a general principle which enables the extraction of general features to an over all shape (obtuse and acute angles)
89
what is coherent motion
that an object that is joined will move in the same direction and speed as the rest of the object even if part of it is out of view
90
When do infants understand coherent motion and what does this suggest
from 6 months not new borns, suggesting that it relies on the cortex which needs more development after birth
91
Is orienting to sound present from birth
yes
92
What is synaesthesia
When sense are related
93
What is the theory behind psychedelic babies
Thought that babies are born with synaesthesia - their sensations are mixed up and through development they learn how to separate them
94
What system are reflexes controlled by
sub cortical system
95
Motor development improves as the ____ matures
sub cortical system
96
What can influence motor development
The environment
97
What is the visual cliff experiement
measures a babies ability to perceive depth
98
What finding was shown by the visual cliff experiment between young and older children
Young children did not show fear, they showed interest
| Once they are older (can crawl), they start to show fear - this has developed from experience of their envinroment
99
Why do immobilised babies have impaired perception of depth
perception of depth improves with experience when orientating oneself around their environment
100
Put these in order for the hierarchy of processing and representation:
1. sensory representation
2. stimulus
3. cognition
4. perceptual representation
1. stimulus
2. sensory representation
3. perceptual representation
4. cognition
101
Who was a constunctionist
Piaget
102
Describe constructivism in terms of development
From the interaction of between the child and the environment, the child is able to construct their own reality - a process of discovery as if they were little scientists
103
what did Piaget take notice of when studying children
The systematic errors they made
104
What does a good theory provide
A framework for further testing and experimentation
105
What were 4 characteristics of piagets theory of development
1. constructionist
2. stage theory
3. invariant sequence
4. universal
106
What is meant by a stage theory
A theory that proposes discrete stages where there is a discrete transition from one stage to the next
107
How many subsystems does the sensorimotor period have
6
108
What does it mean to say that new borns have a form of solipsism
that new borns don't have an understanding of the world - they initially have no knowledge and representation
109
What does a true sopisist not have
They do not have a sense of self
110
What causes new borns to interact with the environment
innate reflex actions
111
what is a schema
a mental structure/concept
112
Are assimilation and accommodation innate
yes they are innate
113
What is assimilation
bringing in new information that fits an existing schema
114
What is accomodation
modifying existing schema due to new experiences
115
What suggested to piaget that babies has a lack of object permanence concept
babies presenting searching errors
116
What did piaget theorised about babies making the A not B error
They have an 'out of sight, out of mind' perception
117
Why do babies fail the A not B test
the child has not appreciated that the object has a life of its own, so sees the object as a product of the act of searching
118
What is the invisible displacement test and what error do children make
an object is hidden, then moved while still remaining hidden. The child will not appreciate that the object has also moved location and will look under the cloth that is now in the original location
119
What is the child able to do after they have gone through the sensorimotor period (18 months)
can start to use an object in a different way to its primary use (use a banana like a phone)
They start to understand the permanence of objects and have a mental representation of them
120
What 2 stages does childhood development consist of
1. Pre-operational stage
| 2. concrete operations stage
121
Which stage of child hood development presents egocentrism
pre-operational stage
122
At which stage of childhood development are children perceptually bound
pre-operational stage
123
If a child is perceptually bound, what kind of tasks will they fail at
conservation tasks
124
Give examples of conservation tasks
1. liquid being poured into different sized beakers
2. lines of the same number of counters but spread out to different lengths
3. Plasticine ball being changed shape
125
If a child is unable to conserve over a transformation, which type of task will they fail at
conservation task
126
during the pre operational stage, what 3 concepts does a child not understand
1. conserving over transformation
2. mental operations of compensation
3. reversibility of tasks`
127
When the child reache the concrete operations stage of childhood development what can they do
They understand conservation and can produce mental representations
128
If a child understand conservation what stage of the childhood development are they in
concrete operations stage
129
When does adolescent development start
11 years to adulthood
130
When does childhood development end and adolescent development begin
when formal operations begin, such as abstract reasoning and being able to have mental representations for things that have no physical referent
131
What is combinatory thinking
thinking about 2 things simultaneously
132
What is the final stage in piagets stage theory of development
formal operation - he argued that all children develop into adolescents that are capable of logical reasoning but this is not true and not everyone reaches this stage
133
What stage of piagets stage theory does not everyone reach (even though piaget suggested that everyone would)
Formal operations
134
What is piagets theory based on? Assimilation or accomodation
piaget accepts a gradual process of assimilation but his theory is really about the step wise changes that occure through accomodation
135
What were the three main challenges against piaget's stage theory
1. Children are more precocious (more ability then piaget suggets)
2. development is more gradual
3. development is domain specific
136
What is meant by development being domain specific
pockets of ability are evolved, independent of a general mechanism that emerge at different rates
137
Did piaget argue that development was domain general or domain specific
domain general
138
How did piaget argue that development was domain general
once a child who was reasoning at one stage, they were able to achieve all aspects at that stage
139
What was the experiment that disproved the 'out of sight out of mind' theory
the reaching in a dark room
140
What experiment showed that children knew about solidity
through babies looking longer due to violation of expectancy - when a car ran down a ramp and was not slowed down by a block in the way
141
Why, in questioning, can children's answers not be an accurate representation of what they are thinking
sometimes the child by try to second guess the adult, therefore with the adult asking the same question twice, they assume they did not answer correctly the first time
142
What does Siegler's wave model suggest
that children might approach a task with a variety of strategies and might switch from day to day, before settling on a method that works best
143
What is microgenetic analysis
lots of observations on individuals on the same task with both quantitative and qualitative analysis
144
What did siegler's number conservation experiment test?
Whether the feeback conditions given to the child effect how they do on the task
145
What was found to be the most successful type of feedback from Sieger's number conservation experiment
Feedback plus explain-experimenter reasoning (how do you think I knew that?)
146
Why did children perform better when they had to give the reasoning of the experimenter in the task?
It is more challeneging to think about something from another person's perspective and when you approach the problem from this side, you think about it greater with a sepper analysis
147
Who introduced the idea that adults have a large influence on a child's development
Lea Vygotsky
148
What do adults do to help a child with understanding
They take into consideration the age of the child and adapt their instructions and interactions to assist them
149
What is the Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
The idea of pushing and encouraging the child just outside of what they can do, can encourage the developmental process.
Pushing them just outside of their actual level of development to a proximal zone of development, especially if feedback and encouragement is given
150
What does ZPD stand for
Zone of Proximal Development
151
How does the way an adult helps a child vary with the childs age
When the child is younger, the adult tends to show them more and tell them less - more visual
Whereas when they are older, this switches to telling them more and showing them less - more verbal
152
What is used to describe the brain that is made up of different specialisations with dedicated mechanisms and internal structures
domain specificity
153
Does evolution prompt for domain specificity or domain general
domain specificity
154
Give example of domain general aspects of cognition
1. memory
2. attention
3. associative learning
155
What was the general problem with piaget's theory due to focusing on errors
failure on his tasks may have been due to performance limitations rather than competence limitations
156
Through development what transition do we see:
1. explicit to implicate knowledge
2. implicate to explicit
implicate to explicit
157
What are executive functions
Abilities that allow you to control or derive certain behaviours
158
What general functions (4 types) does executive control support?
1. working memory
2. selective attention
3. inhibitory control
4. planning
159
What is inhibitory control
being able to actively ignore information and supress the tendency to focus on something
160
What part of the brain do general functions requiring executive control system, require?
the cortex
161
What part of the brain goes through a large amount of development during childhood
the cortex
162
What area of the cortex particularly enables increasing executive control
pre-frontal cortex
163
What may be a reason for the A not B error in terms of executive control
the child becomes distracted and therefore disrupts their working memory or they are unable to suppress the urge to look where they last found the object
164
If a child shows dissociation between looking and the action they take, what does this support
That they have limited executive control and unable to suppress the urge to complete the same action as before
165
What are inhibitory errors
when we follow a routine that is already in our head due to a lack of concentration
166
What does evidence suggest for A not B error:
1. issue is around having the ability to keep it in mind
2. issue is with the failure to represent an object that is not there
issue is around having the ability to keep it in mind
167
What is the evidence that the A not B error may be due to an issue with being able to keep it in mind
older children can also present the same error if the length of a delay is increased
168
What part of the brain support flexible thinking
frontal lobes
169
What patients fail at the Wisconsin card sorting task and why
patients with damaged frontal lobe as they are unable to make the transition from one rule to another which is due to not being able to have flexible thinking and ignore information
170
What is the theory of mind
the measure of the your ability to be able to understand things from another person's perspective and understand what they are thinking
171
What task tests a child's theory of mind
sally anne test
172
What does the sally anne test test for
test for false belief - element of theory of mind
173
Other than a failure of theory of mind, what could the failure of the sally anne test be due to
failure of inhibitory control and impulsiveness
174
What is a scale error
when a toddler fails to grasp the relative size of an object relative to their own body
175
What type of phenomenon is the scale error
U shaped phenomenon
176
What could be the cause of the scale error
Inhibitory errors - when the child sees an object they feel they need to do the action to go with it
177
What are core knowledge theories
The child is born with some hard wired understanding about the world
178
What skills are said to be hard wired, according to the core knowledge theory
1. navigation
2. counting skill
3. understanding solid objects
179
What are the 3 main domains where you find intuitive theory operating?
1. Biological theories: what makes something alive
2. Physical theories: What are the properties of the physical world
3. Psychology theories: what is the mind and how does it work
180
What are intuitive theories
theories that are not taught, they are spontaneously formed by the child to provide a framework to help the child to understand what is going on
181
What are the 3 main intuitive theories
1. biological
2. physical
3. psychological
182
What does Spelke's model of cognitive development suggest
That infants are born with a repertoire of tools that enable them to segment the world into objects and backgrounds
183
What core principles do objects obey (3)
1. Cohesion
2. Continuity
3. Contact
184
What is meant by an object obeying cohesion
an object maintains its boundaries and connectedness
185
What is meant by an object obeying continuity
an object moves on a continuous path
186
What is meant by an object obeying contact
objects move only under contact
187
What is meant by saying that a child is in the grip of a theory
the child is unable to update their models
188
What is said when a child is unable to update their models
they are in the grip of a theory
189
Why can theories be counterproductive
because they resist counter evidence
190
When does a Kuhnian transformation occur
when there is enough evidence to rethink a theory that you have developed
191
What occurs when there is enough evidence to rethink a theory
Kuhnian transformation
192
What was the experiment that showed that children at a certain age find it difficult to see beyond a theory
the experiment where the children had to balance a ruler that looked symmetrical but was actually weighted
• 4 year olds solved the problem as they used trial and error
• 8 year old failed but then were able to correct themselves
• 6 year olds failed are were unable to be flexible about their reasoning
193
What age tends to be unable to have flexible reasoning
6 years
194
What is a gravity error
Where children think that an object will always fall straight down to the ground - a theory they have developed through experience, even if it is dropped into a tube that redirects it
195
What did Johnson and Morton propose babies had
proposed that humans are born with a configural mechanism that makes newborns orient faces in order to learn from them
196
What is conspec
to be drawn to face-like configuration
197
What is conlearn
to be able to learn a specific face
198
What are the 2 brian mechanisms that allow us to orient towards and learn faces
1. conspec
| 2. conlearn
199
Give some examples of early social interaction
1. imitation
2. contingency
3. gaze following
4. pointing
5. joint attention
200
What are some examples of babyness
1. large head
2. large eyes
large eyes to head ratio
201
what is it thought that at puberty, preference moves to young and baby-like features
Due to triggering of paternal instinct and causing an emotional attraction
202
If new born's are able to imitate an adults facial expression, what does that suggest?
That infants have intrinsic mapping between the baby's face and the external representation given by the adult, even though they have not seen their own face before (controversial)
203
When do baby's start to imitate faces
after a few week (week evidence for it being possible when newly born)
204
What evidence is there for social synchronisation being there from the beginning (innate)
turn taking during breast feeding
205
What is temporal organisation and what is an example
burst-pause patterns
occurs in the turn taking of breast feeding
206
which has more evidence:
1. adults imitating babies
2. babies imitating adults
adults imitating babies
207
What help an adult with social synchronisation with the baby and imitation
adult sensitivity: mothers read the behaviour as intentional
208
What can joint attention be used for
* to help signal mutual interest
| * be used to signal information about something that may be of interest to both parties
209
Why is it thought that social smiling is reflexive
as it is also present in blind babies
210
When does social smiling emerge
around 3 months
211
What is the still face effect
children become distressed when the adult terminates social interaction
212
What experiment is used to show social reciprocity in young children
the still face effect
213
Why can depressed mothers find it difficult to form a relationship with the child
because they can prsent as being too flat or too exaggerated, causing de-synchronised mother-infant interactions, producing disinterest and distress
214
Do babies have a preference for adults that show contingency
yes
215
What is contingency
when there is a synchronised interaction and attention is given to the child
216
What is gaze following
use of each others gaze as a source of visual interest
217
Do infants before 8 months gaze follow
They are sensitive to gaze and the direction of gaze but will not follow it until they are older
218
Why are infants under 8 months unable to follow gaze
sticky fixation
219
What is sticky fixation
unable to disengage from something to be able to move focus onto something else
220
What needs to develop to allow more control of head and eye movement, to get over sticky fixation
development of cortical mechanism
221
Is sticky fixation a performance limitation or competence limitation
performance limitation
222
What are the two types of pointing
1. protoimperative
| 2. Protodeclarative
223
What is protoimperative pointing
goal oriented (get me that)
224
What is protodeclarative pointing
object or event orientated (wow look at that) - to share information of interest
225
which type of pointing do we share with primates and which type is unique to humans
```
protoimperative = shared with primates
protodeclarative = uniquely human
```
226
When is overall pointing more prevelant
during joint attention
227
When does joint attention reliably emerge
within 9 months
228
give the ages that the following become possible
1. follow gaze direction
2. able to follow gaze to look at target in front
3. able to follow gaze to look at targets behind them
1. 6 months
2. 12 months
3. 18 months
229
poor eye gaze monitoring and joint attention is common among children diagnose with ___
ASD
230
What does it mean for the baby to use the mother as a social reference
the baby will look for a cue from the mother to see how they should react and to help interpret the environment
231
In what scenarios will infants use their mothers for social reference
In situations of ambiguity (if it is extreme, they will make more of an instinctive decision)
232
infants and parents are pre-adapted to ____
attend to each other
233
Joint attention is a fundamental building block for ____
social interaction
234
Who was first interested in children who had been separated from their families early on in their development
Rene Spitz
235
Who studied children who had been evacuated during the blitz and separated from their families
John Bowlby
236
What did John Bowlby found from studying the children who had been evacuated during the blitz
they had significant behavioural problems, they were emotionally disrupted and showed depression
237
Who argued that attachment was a primary drive rather than a secondary drive (essential for normal emotional development)
John Bowlby
238
What does it mean by saying that attachment is a primary drive
it is essential for normal emotional development
239
What was John Bowlby's thoery of attchment
that there was an evolutionary mechanism designed to maintain an optimal distance between the infant and the mother
240
What is a homeostatic mechanism
a self-regulating mechanism
241
what type of mechanism was the evolutionary mechanism to maintain an optimum distance between the mother and infant
a homeostatic mechanism (self-regulating for the mother and infant)
242
What were the 4 key stage of John Bowlby's theory of attachment
1. Pre attachment phase
2. Attachment formation
3. Clear cut attachment
4. decline in attachment
243
What was the pre attachment phase in John Bowlby's theory of attachment
(0-2 months) when babies are sending out signals for assistance but they are not specifically directed towards the mother
244
What was the attachment formation phase in John Bowlby's theory of attachment
(2-7 months) when the infant starts to be more focused on the mother and becomes wary of strangers
245
What was the clear cut attachment phase in John Bowlby's theory of attachment
(7 months - 2 years) when the child becomes distressed when split from the mother
246
When does the clear cut attachment phase peak in John Bowlbyy's theory of attachment
14 months
247
What is the decline in attachment phase in John Bowlby's theory of attachment
(2 years +) where attachment starts to decline however there is a large amount of variation in the levels of attachment and this depends on the infant and their relationship with the mother
248
What are the 3 components of attachment
1. Proximity seeking: staying close to the mother
2. Secure base: using the mother as a safe base
3. Separation protest: distress at separation
249
Is stranger anxiety a component of attachment
not really but it is clearly occurring and is an indicator of attachment
250
What experiment showed the need and importance for comfort and security during development
Harry Harlow raising monkeys in isolation with a 'cloth' mother and wire food mother. They formed an attachment to the cloth not the wire mother providing food
251
What seems to be the critical window for full recovery of social behaviours after being isolated from birth
6 months
252
Which experiment created a setup for a period of artificial separation between the mother and infant
Ainsworth's strange situation
253
What 4 things were measured in the Ainsworth's strange situation experiment
proximity seeking
secure base
separation protest
stranger anxiety
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Why in the western culture do children have attachment objects
To help with the separation between the infant and the mother during the night
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What is behavioural inhibition
the tendency towards shyness and fear
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What are the three different variations of behavioural inhibtion seen in children
1. inhibited - easily spooked, doesnt like uncertainty, very anxious
2. Disinhibited -very open to new experiences, doesn't get very stressed
3. In between
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What is a child's attachment style a mixture of
1. the reaction to the mother (social relationship)
| 2. the context of the situation and the child reacting to this due to their temperament
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Are behavioural inhibition genetically influenced? and what provides this argument?
behavioural inhibitions have very strong correlations across identical twins which suggests that aspects of our personality are genetically influenced
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What two things can the attachment level of a child be influenced through
1. goodness of fit
| 2. training - train mothers to be better at reading infant behaviours to help foster secure attachment
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What is goodness of fit in terms of being able to influence a child's attachment level
the extent to which the environment and the parents behaviour matches up to the child's temperament - through matching up this relationship, you can improve the social interaction
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What are the 3 main categories of adult attachment
1. secure (get close to people easily)
2. avoidant (feel uncomfortable when close to others)
3. anxious/avoidant (find that people dont want to be as close as they do)
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Who studied romanian orphans comparing adopted orphans to those adopted who were UK-born
Rutter
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What did the study on romanian orphans present
that there is a critical window for social development (from 6 months)
physical development was most recovered over time in most cases
The longer that have been in the orphanage, the greater the severity of social development
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What kind of behaviours did the romanian orphans exhibit
1. attention seeking behaviours towards all adults
2. lack of fear of strangers
3. inappropriate physical contact
4. lack of checking back to parent in stressful situation
5. aggressive behaviours
6. ADHD like behaviour
7. Repeat meaningless behaviours
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What is more of an issue: economic or social poverty
social poverty - to have continuous caregivers from birth to school age is important
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Primates require social interaction _____ nutrition
as much as
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Different types of attachment reflect ____ and ____
parenting and temperament
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A decline in attachment between 2 to 3 years also marks in increase in ____
awareness of other minds
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Baby's are also able to see geometric shapes as ____
intentional agents
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With the experiment of the lady turning the light on with her head, when did the baby imiate her and what did this indicate
the infants only imitated her when she had her hands free, suggesting that they understood the goal, as in the other case they imitated the intention not the action - therefore seeing actions as goal driven
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Do infants see actions as goal driven
yes
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What does imitation as pedagogy stance mean
using imitation as a way of teaching
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How do primates and children differ when it comes to copying someone completing a task
children will copy the whole sequence of actions to achieve the goal whereas primates will go straight to the goal without engaging in so many different actions if they do not immediately appear necessary
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What is egocentricism in a child
when a child is unable to see the goal or intention from another's perspective
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Toddler's tend to speak in the first person, what is this a sign of
Egocentricism
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What game are young children bad at playing due to egocentricism
Hide and seek
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If you are able to generate a prediction, based on you past experiences, about the mental states of others, what are you said to have?
Theory of mind
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Do you need theory of mind to be able to lie
yes because lying is installing a false belief in someone
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What are the 2 factors that can influence a false belief task such as the sally anne task
1. Experience
| 2. Context
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Why do younger siblings perform better at the sally anne task?
As they have more experience of dealing with others and how their actions may effect the environment
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how does self recognition begin for young infants?
Noticing their own bodily movements
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What is the argument about the self recognition test using a mirror and putting a dot on the child's nose
That it might be more to do with self-consciousness rather than self recognition
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When children are younger and are able to give limited descriptions of oneself, what do they focus on?
their physical features and abilities (problem solving)
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What are the 5 dimensions of self esteem that adolescents present
1. Scholastic achievement
2. social acceptance
3. Behavioural conduct
4. Athletic competence
5. Physical appearance
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What type of families help a child develop high self esteem
supportive families
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As children get older they move away from seeking approval from ___ to seeking approval from ___
from parents to their peers
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What are the four types of inhibition (suppress the urges of..)
1. Inhibition of movement
2. Inhibition of emotion
3. inhibition of conclusion (saying something/making a judgement before you have been able to think about it properly)
4. Inhibition of choice
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Why do children with strict parents tend to show less self control
they havent been able to internalise the correct way to behave as it has always been externally controlled
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What does the marshmallow test demonstrate
demonstrates a child's ability for self control
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What is meant by saying that a child is a gender extentualist
when a child identifies with a gender, they tend to reiterate the gender stereotypes that are present in society - they present the idea that genders have a unique ability that shouldn't change
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What is gender socialisation
when an adults interaction with a child is dependent on the perceived sex
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According to Erikson, what does adolescence mark
marks a shift in emphasis from family relations to peer relations when defining oneself (you cant choose your parents but you can choose your friends)
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How does self differ from western culture to eastern culture
western culture: portrayed more that you are a unique individual
Eastern: see themselves as part of a group (rebellion in adolescence is more common in western societies)
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What is observational learning
Children will copy what they see and copy the same behaviour
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Through observational learning, what behaviours does a child copy and what ones do they avoid
A child will copy the behaviours that are acceptable and avoid the behaviours that would end up being punished
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What is vicarious punishment and what does it result in
Vicarious punishment is where a child sees another person getting punished for their actions, therefore learns from it and does not repeat these actions
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What was the example of alturism in children
the video of the adult carrying books and the child helps them as they can see they are unable to open the cupboard
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What does aultrism require from the child
It requires them to understand the intention of the adult. However it can not be said that children are completely selfless and that they are likely to be helping the adult due to past experiencing suggesting that they will get rewarded for such actions
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Is piaget cognitive or behaviourist?
cognitive
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What were the three ways that piaget said children's thinking changed
1. From realism to relativism
2. From prescriptions to principles
3. From consequences to intentions
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What is meant by the shift from realism to relativism thinking
where children think rules are in nature to then thinking that rules are more flexible than this
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What is meant by the shift from prescriptions to principles thinking
to be able to only use rules in a certain situation to then be able to take rules out of a context and more generally use them in other situations
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What is meant by the shift from consequences to intentions thinking
the switch from measuring the severeness of an action due to its consequences to understanding the intention behind the action to be able to identify if an action is bad or good (if something is by accident)
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Is moral reasoning innate
it is a skill that has to be acquired
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What are the 3 stages in Kohlberg's stage theory
1. Preconventional stage (what will happen to me)
2. Conventional stage (what do others normally do)
3. Post conventional stage (how does it fit with my values)
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Which stage in the kohlberg's stage theory (moral thinking) is the stage where one is able to think independently about whether an action is good, therefore questioning an action against their own values and not necessarily following the actions of others
Postconventional stage
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What does the trolley problem suggest (moral thinking situation)
suggests that morality comes from the sense of what is right or wrong because it feels right or wrong
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Why are humans capable of complex social interactions
because they can attribute mental states to others
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To be able to understand the mental states of others one must be able to...
suppress one's own view and knowledge in order to appreciate another's perspective
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Evidence suggests that aspects of morality are ___ and ___
universal and acquired early
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What are the 5 taxonomy subsystems of language
1. Phonology
2. Morphology
3. Syntax
4. Semantics
5. Pragmatics
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What is phonology
the speech sounds that carry meaning (the b in box)
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What is morphology
words and word formation (the smallest unit in a word un in unhappy)
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What is a syntax
the rules governing word and meaning of resulting sentences
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What is seen as the big problem of language learning
Syntax - the rules governing words and meanings of resulting sentences
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What is semantics
the meaning of words and sentences
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What is pragmatics
the use of language in conversation (the factors that influence the choice of word due to the context that they are said in)
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What are the 3 theories of language acquistion
1. Nativist view
2. Behaviourist view
3. Interactionist view
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What is the nativist view of developing language
language structure is acquired through a primitive form that must be innate.
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What is the behaviourist view of language acquisition
language is learnt from a rich language input and through basic principles of learning (around the idea that learning is through reinforcement, shaping and extinction)
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What is the interactionsts view of language acquisition
there is a focus on the mechanics of language learning. Questioning what is the process of language learning and how do infants solve these issues
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When does the core auditory system start to develop
9 weeks after conception
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Can the fetus hear whilst in the womb
yes
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What noises will the baby experience whilst in the womb
1. internal sounds from the mother's body
| 2. external sounds sounding muffled
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What frequencies are the mother's voice at
125-250 Hz
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Why is the mother's voice well transmitted
because there is less attenuation over the frequency range of the mothers voice (125-250 Hz)
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When can a child start to pick up changes in pitch and rhythm
from 6 months
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What are neonatal preferences
babies show to have a preference to thinks they have had more reinforcement with or are more salient with due to experience or exposure
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What are neo natal preference:
speech or non speech
speech
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What are neo natal preference:
low pass mothers speech output or unfilteres noise
low pass mother speech output (due to hearing it in the womb)
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What are neo natal preference:
mother's native language or foreign language
mother's native language
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What are neo natal preference:
mother's voice or female voices
mother's voice
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What is the non-nutritive sucking paradigm
monitoring the sucking rate of an infant and seeing if there is a change in rate when a change in stimuli is presented after habituation
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dishabituation = ____
discrimination
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What are 3 key sounds infants can discriminate between
1. Different voices (male and female, different females)
2. Fathers voice from other male voices
3. discriminate different pitch and prosody by 2 months
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Give the three different types of language and an example of each
1. stress timed language (english, dutch)
2. Syllable timed language (french, spanish)
3. mora timed language (japanese)
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What langauges can an infant distinguish bewteen and which cant they tell the difference of
can tell the difference between languages with different styles e.g dutch and japanese, but cant tell the difference between languages of the same style e,.g english and dutch
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What is categorical peception
the perceptual phenomenon whereby events that lie along a continuum are perceived as belonging to one category or another
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Do infants have categorical perception
yes, evidence shows habituation for big changes and children react similarly to adults in terms of being able to recognise category boundaries
