3.1.2.1 democracy and participation Flashcards

Question

turnout in 1945 to 1992

Answer 1

84% - highest ever recorded

Answer 2

59% - lowest ever recorded

Answer 3

2005 - 61% 2010 - 65% 2015 - 66% 2017 - 69% 2019 - 67%

Answer 4

as it questions the legitmacy of the elected government

Answer 5

1 million members

Answer 6

2.8 million

Answer 7

3.8% and since then this number has decreased to 1%

Answer 8

refers to the process of incorporating different groups into the workings of the government

Answer 9

1.5 million

Answer 10

they rarely achieve 50%

Answer 11

12%-14% with a low of 8%

Answer 12

In the modern world, particularly in the west, democracy is seen as the purest and most effective way of ruling a state, but this has not always been the case. Indeed, for centuries democracy was seen as an insult and something to be feared.

Answer 13

In modern democracies, checks are put in place to limit the power given to the people. In America, the Declaration of Independence declared all men to be created equal and a founding principle of the constitution was the establishment of democracy, but various institutions were created to limit and check the power of the people and initially it was only wealthy, white men who could vote.

Answer 14

The House of Lords and the power of the monarch, for centuries only wealthy, male landowners had the right to vote for MPs. The franchise has been extended over time to include property owners, all men, women and eventually those over the age of 18. Yet even today, there are concerns about further extending the right to vote to other groups of people, such as 16- and 17-year-olds and those in prison. The argument is always the same — are these groups intelligent enough, capable enough and responsible enough to make decisions in the best interests of everyone in society?

Answer 15

Yes, some rely on majoritarian democracy and other on liberal democracy.

Answer 16

Yes, for example, China - they hold elections but you can only vote for the chinese communist party

Answer 17

Some democracies are presidential while others are parliamentary, or even rely on a constitutional monarchy. All are democracies, but how effectively they allow the people to exercise power, and whether or not people power is in the national interest, is a matter of debate for each type.

Answer 18

In the referendum on the UK’s membership of the EU, turnout was 72.2%, of whom 52% voted to leave. As a result, the British government is pursuing a policy that will fundamentally change the way Britain works — politically, socially and economically. Such a monumental decision was effectively made by only 37.7% of the voting population.

Answer 19

- parliamentary sovereignty - immigration - dissatisfaction with the government at the time

Answer 20

Much had been made of a claim that £350 million that was sent to the EU every week could instead be spent on the NHS.

Answer 21

The claim was contested before the vote and, after the vote, UKIP leader Nigel Farage said the claim should never have been made, because there is no guarantee that the money could be redirected in this way.

Answer 22

- Liberal democracy - Majoritarian democracy - Parlaimentary democracy - Presidential democracy - Direct democracy - Representatice democracy

Answer 23

In this form of democracy, the right to vote will be widespread and representatives will act in the interests of everyone in society.

Answer 24

This is a system whereby the will or desires of the majority of the population are the prime considerations of the government

Answer 25

This is a system where parliament stands as the highest form of authority. The executive branch will be drawn from and accountable to the people’s representatives in parliament.

Answer 26

This is a system where the executive will be elected separately from the legislative body and is therefore chosen by and directly accountable to the people.

Answer 27

Parliamentary democracy; - The government is drawn from members of parliament. - The government is held to account by parliament. - There is a unified system, whereby the executive and legislature are from the same party. - The head of state and head of government are likely to be separate. Presidential democracy - The government is elected separately from members of the legislature. - The electorate holds the government to account. - There is the possibility of a divided government when different parties control the executive and legislature. - The head of state will usually be the head of government as well.

Answer 28

- Representation - Accountability - Participation - Power dispersal - Legitimacy - Education

Answer 29

There must be a means of the people being able to put their views to the government of the day.

Answer 30

There must be a process by which the government of the day can be made to explain and take responsibility for its actions.

Answer 31

There must be a way in which the people can be engaged and take part in the political process.

Answer 32

There should be a system that ensures power is spread across different political bodies to avoid one body becoming overly dominant.

Answer 33

The process for the selection of the different branches of government should have legal authority and fairly represent the will of the people.

Answer 34

The political process should be open to all and there should be an educated and informed citizenry who are able to understand the issues and make informed decisions.

Answer 35

Direct democracy refers to a system where the eligible citizens make the political decisions themselves without operating through anyone else, such as representatives. Typically, decisions will be made by a majority vote on a simple for or against basis. In such a system the process of decision making is continuous and on-going, requiring a high level of education and engagement from the people.

Answer 36

as the people are able to express their opinions directly, without being misinterpreted. While some modern states employ a level of direct democracy, the classical idea is just not possible with the geographic and population sizes of modern countries. However, elements of direct democracy are evident in most countries and are becoming more common in the UK.

Answer 37

Referendums

Answer 38

A means by which the people, rather than the government, can call for a vote on a specific issue.

Answer 39

An appeal to make something specific happen, usually by demonstrating a high level of popular support.

Answer 40

Other countries and regions, especially some of the United States, have initiatives, which are similar to a referendum but are proposed and called by a percentage of the population. This allows the public more direct control over the issues being considered. In addition, the USA also adopts a system of town hall meetings where members of the public can attend and put their views directly to the people in power.

Answer 41

Other elements of direct democracy used in the UK include citizens’ juries and public petitions, both of which allow the people to express their opinion on a particular policy or area of government, although these are still tempered by representatives.

Answer 42

The nature of the representation can take many forms but essentially the elected representatives will debate and discuss laws on behalf of the people who have elected them. They may act on what their constituents want or on what they think would be best for their constituents, or they may represent wider groups when debating and creating laws.

Answer 43

The UK has a wide variety of elections, allowing citizens to choose representatives for a range of local and national bodies, and providing many opportunities for the public to participate in the democratic process and be educated by political campaigns. Elections in the UK are free from government manipulation because they are conducted by the Electoral Commission, which is independent of any particular party. There are laws in place about campaigning in and around the ballot stations on the day of an election. Other measures designed to make sure elections are fair include campaign spending limits and a ban on campaigning during the period of purdah. Furthermore, the UK restricts the amount of broadcast campaigning for each party by ensuring that party political broadcasts are allocated according to previous electoral support, are given the same amount of time and are broadcast at the same time each day.

Answer 44

The Electoral Commission was created in 2000 by the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act. The Commission is independent from government and party influence and has the key responsibility of overseeing and strengthening democracy in the UK.

Answer 45

- registering political parties - advising and explaining the rules relating to campaign finance and election spending - ensuring political parties comply with legal requirements - setting the criteria by which elections are run - reviewing and reporting on how well elections are run - reviewing and reporting on all UK elections and referendums, with suggestions for improvements - advising parliament and being consulted on changes to election laws and regulations - approving the wording of referendum questions to ensure fairness - educating the public on how to register to vote and on the importance of registering

Answer 46

After hitting a historic low of 59% in the general election of 2001, turnout in UK general elections has been steadily increasing. Turnout was 61% in 2005, 65% in 2010 and 66% in 2015. Furthermore, turnout at the Scottish independence referendum was 84.6% and at the EU referendum was 72%, showing that more people are participating in the political process.

Answer 47

Building on the idea of fairness, the UK has a system of universal suffrage. This means that everyone over the age of 18 who is not a prisoner, mentally incapable or a peer, has the right to vote, on the basis of one person, one vote. This means that all votes are equal in value and that there is no distinction based on wealth, race, gender, class or any other grounds.

Answer 48

The UK has a wide variety of political parties and the number has grown greatly in the past 50 years. Currently, there are 11 different parties represented in the House of Commons, with many more contesting elections. This variety provides a wide range of options for voters with different views and visions for the country, as well as a greater degree of representation. Furthermore, it is the parties who drive public education. With so many political parties contesting elections and scrutinising each other, the parties raise the profile of political issues and help to create a better informed and educated population.

Answer 49

The UK has thousands of pressure groups, covering every issue possible. Pressure groups provide an alternative avenue of representation, particularly on small or minority issues, that might not concern a majority of the electorate or the parties seeking majority support. With such a large number of groups, the UK provides a mouthpiece for any minority interest as well as providing a variety of ways in which the public can participate.

Answer 50

Pressure groups will investigate issues, raise public awareness and help to develop government policies in order to educate the electorate and ensure that the needs of people who may not be able to vote are taken into consideration. Pressure groups are legally equal and are free to compete with each other in order to allow the government and the public to make an informed and balanced decision.

Answer 51

Parliament holds legal sovereignty, which means that the chosen representatives of the people hold the ultimate power in making, amending and repealing laws. As such, government is drawn from members of parliament and is accountable to parliament. In trying to pass policies or on issues of taxation and spending, the government must get consent from the House of Commons, thereby gaining consent indirectly from the people.

Answer 52

The process of devolution has allowed the constituent parts of the UK (apart from England), along with many cities, to make decisions on a local basis. Representatives are closer to the community in which they serve. This allows for better quality representation and ensures that policies are appropriate to each area, rather than being imposed by a remote and disconnected central government.

Answer 53

An unelected hereditary monarchy and an unelected House of Lords undermine the concept of representative democracy in the UK. The monarch and peers have not been selected to represent any specific section of society and they can only be removed by death or, following the House of Lord Reform Act 2014, resigning or being expelled for failing to attend an entire annual parliamentary session or committing a serious criminal offence. This means there is no way for the public to hold them to account.

Answer 54

Although the powers of the monarch and Lords are theoretically limited, this is only by convention, such as the Salisbury Doctrine, and can be ignored by the Lords if they choose to do so. Furthermore, even after reform, 92 hereditary peers remain and the system of appointment is often criticised for cronyism, making the undemocratic House of Lords appear even less democratic.

Answer 55

In October 2015, the House of Lords rejected a series of proposed cuts to the tax credit system by 289 to 272 votes. The proposals had recently been passed by a narrow vote in the House of Commons. The government then dropped the plans to make the cuts but the situation raised questions over the nature and democratic legitimacy of the Lords.

Answer 56

While the UK has many elections, turnout is often quite low, leading to claims of a participation crisis. Recent general election turnouts are still below the historic average of 75% or the 71% achieved in 1997. Below elections at the national level, turnout drops significantly, as shown in Table 9.2. Turnout at most referendums is also far below that of general elections. This raises questions about the legitimacy of the decisions made and the representatives elected.

Answer 57

Devolution has created an imbalance in UK politics, known as the West Lothian Question. The question relates to the fact that Scottish MPs (and Welsh, Northern Irish and London MPs, depending on the issue) can vote on issues that do not affect their constituents but do impact other people. For example, the increase in student tuition fees in England and Wales in 2004 was only passed with the votes of Scottish MPs, while the extension to Sunday trading was defeated in 2016 with the votes of SNP MPs, despite the fact that neither issue would directly affect residents in Scotland. This means that MPs are making decisions about things that affect people who cannot hold them accountable.

Answer 58

Attempts to address this imbalance with ‘English votes for English laws’ (EVEL) have been limited and run the risk of creating two tiers of MPs, which would undermine the principle of a parliamentary chamber.

Answer 59

In order to address the West Lothian Question, the 2015 Conservative Party manifesto contained a proposal for an extra stage in the legislative process for legislation that would only affect England — ‘English votes for English Laws’ or EVEL. This additional stage gives English MPs (or English and Welsh MPs, depending on the issue) the power to strike down legislation that would affect their constituents. This means that an issue such as the 2004 increase in tuition fees would be prevented from going to a vote of the whole house. However, it does not address the issue of Scottish MPs being able to strike down legislation which is supported by English MPs, as was shown in the case of the Sunday Trading Bill in 2016

Answer 60

During debates over Scottish devolution in the 1970s, the MP for West Lothian, Tam Dalyell, asked why Scottish MPs should be able to vote on matters that relate only to England, when English MPs could not vote on the same matters that had been devolved and therefore affected only people in Scotland. This has become known as the West Lothian Question and reflects the fact that Scottish MPs are able to vote on issues that do not affect their constituents. In 2003–04, Labour passed legislation for the creation of foundation hospitals and increases in student tuition fees, matters that would not affect anyone in Scotland. In both cases, the legislation only passed with the votes of Scottish MPs.

Answer 61

The number of Scottish seats at Westminster was reduced from 72 to 59 in 2005 to counter this problem, the issue has become more prominent since 2010 because the vast majority of Scottish MPs have represented a different party from the one in government. Since 2015, there has been a Conservative majority in Westminster but only one Conservative MP from Scotland.

Answer 62

- wasted votes - safe seats - unrepresentative - winner's bonus -discriminates against parties with widespread support - minority constituencies - two-party system

Answer 63

Any votes cast for a candidate who does not win in a constituency play no role in the selection of representatives in parliament, meaning they are effectively wasted.

Answer 64

Some constituencies elect a candidate from the same party in every election and the level of support required to win the constituency is so high that voters see no point in voting for a different party.

Answer 65

Differences in the concentration of support across the UK mean that the result of elections does not reflect the way the public voted, with UKIP winning 13% of the vote in 2015 but only 1 seat, while the SNP gained 56 seats with only 2% of the national vote.

Answer 66

The system exaggerates the support received by the most popular party, which means the party receives more seats than is proportional to the number of votes it received, thus boosting its majority in parliament.

Answer 67

Parties with support spread across the UK but not concentrated in a geographic area will find it difficult to gain seats and therefore representation, such as the Greens, Liberal Democrats and UKIP.

Answer 68

In these constituencies, an MP wins the most votes but does not gain more than 50% of the total vote, meaning a majority of the public did not vote for their representative.

Answer 69

It favours parties with a lot of support spread evenly across the country and generally results in one of the two main parties forming the government and the other forming an opposition or ‘government in waiting’.

Answer 70

Alternative systems have been tried but even when they have solved some of the problems of FPTP they have also had problems of their own, leading to extremist parties gaining representation, confusion at the polls, spoiled ballot papers and a lack of clear representation.

Answer 71

Despite the range of parties competing, only two have a realistic chance of gaining power in Westminster. As a result, many people vote for one of the two main parties, which often have similar polices, especially in the period of post-Thatcherite consensus. Even in devolved areas, the contest tends to centre on a two-party system, with the SNP and Labour competing in Scotland since devolution and the Conservative and Labour parties mirroring the national results in London.

Answer 72

Pressure groups do not compete on an equal footing. A small number of pressure groups tend to dominate any political debate at the expense of other interests. This results from a number of factors: - insider status - size of membership - wealth - public profile Consequently, British pressure group participation is based on elitism rather than a pluralist system of representation.

Answer 73

Although the Electoral Commission oversees the elections, it is often a reactive, rather than proactive, body. In terms of comments, adverts and spending, it tends to pass judgement and sanctions after an event, meaning the message has already had its impact. Furthermore, there are loopholes over spending and the use of social media that the Commission has no power to regulate or ability to control.

Answer 74

Without a codified constitution, key rights can easily be overturned by the government without effective redress through the judicial system. This undermines a key principle of democracy that citizens’ rights are protected from government abuse.

Answer 75

The creation of ‘safe spaces’ in universities has been criticised in parliament for restricting forums for debate and discussion.

Answer 76

Additional measures have been taken to restrict protests outside of parliament.

Answer 77

Despite repeated judicial instructions, governments have not granted any prisoners the right to vote.

Answer 78

Governments have been able to extend the period of detention without charge under the Terrorism Act to 28 days in 2006 (reduced to 14 days in January 2011) and suspend part of the Human Rights Act, as in the Belmarsh case.

Answer 79

- Everyone is represented through a constituency MP - The FPTP electoral system is simple and provides a clear winner for each seat. - Britain has a variety of parties that contest elections, with 11 parties in parliament and many others contesting elections. - Everyone over the age of 18, who is not a prisoner, mentally incapable or a peer, has the right to vote. - There are thousands of pressure groups representing a wide variety of interests and groups which can compete. - New groups and parties can easily be created to take on new issues. - The Electoral Commission works hard to ensure that parties adhere to rules on spending and campaigning.

Answer 80

- Due to the FPTP electoral system, there are many minority MPs who were not voted in by a majority of their constituents. - The electoral system leads to wasted votes and unrepresentative outcomes in parliament. - Safe seats across the UK mean that there is a lack of real choice in many constituencies. In addition, the fact that only two parties are in a realistic position to form a government reduces the level of choice. - There are issues concerning the denial of the franchise to 16- and 17-year-olds as well as prisoners. - There are also many groups who are effectively disenfranchised by the process of registration, such as the homeless. - There is relatively low turnout, with only around two-thirds of people voting in general elections, raising concerns about the democratic legitimacy of the government. - Due to a variety of factors, including wealth, size and status, the competition between pressure groups is often unfair and elitist, giving some groups much greater power than others. - In a situation of hyperpluralism, important issues can be drowned out by the sheer number of campaigns. -Parties are able to find ways around the regulations to spend more. The increasing use of the internet has effectively allowed parties to by-pass the broadcasting restrictions imposed in other areas.

Answer 81

The franchise is the right to vote, so those who hold the franchise are those who are eligible to vote in elections. As elections are conducted by law in the UK, those who hold the franchise, or the automatic right to vote, are determined by legislation. The franchise can be extended in a one-off event, as it was in the Scottish independence referendum in 2014, but this is done on a case-by-case basis. For all representative elections in the UK, the franchise is currently extended to everyone over the age of 18 who is not a criminal, mentally incapable or a peer. This is known as universal suffrage and covers approximately 71.5% of the current UK population.

Answer 82

The essential argument over the franchise is that those who pay tax should have a say in how that tax is spent, hence the rallying cry of the colonies in the American War of Independence: ‘No taxation without representation’. While other factors have also played a role, reform of the franchise has often been driven by the desire of those who pay taxes to determine how those taxes are raised and spent.

Answer 83

Voting rights extended to property owners

Answer 84

Voting rights extended to skilled workers

Answer 85

Voting rights extended to all men over 21 and women over 30

Answer 86

Voting rights extended to all women over 21

Answer 87

Voting rights extended to everyone aged 18 or above

Answer 88

The right to vote was based on the amount of land owned, essentially limiting it to members of the upper class. However, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Britain underwent rapid economic change during the Industrial Revolution, shifting from a rural, land-based economy to a more urban, industrial one. This led to the rise of the middle class as a major economic force in the UK, who contributed more to the economy than the land-owning nobility but held most of their wealth in property.

Answer 89

The Act extended the right to vote to an additional 300,000 people as the value of property, rather than of land, became the key factor for awarding the franchise. In truth, this extension of the franchise to the middle class was relatively modest, as still only 5.6% of the population could vote (about 20% of adult men), but it showed that reform was possible and demonstrated how future groups might be able to persuade parliament to make further changes.

Answer 90

- New jobs, such as typists and telephone exchange workers, teachers and nurses, even doctors and architects, which gave women from all backgrounds more opportunity to earn money and pay taxes. - Changes to marriage laws which meant that women could divorce their husband for cruelty, desertion or bigamy, could keep their own property and leave their husband (i.e. they were free to live where they chose, even if still married).

Answer 91

- It would help to end other inequalities - Men would treat women with more respect. - Women had proven themselves politically capable. - It was happening elsewhere - It would make Britain a true democracy.

Answer 92

- men and women have seperate roles - women did not want the role - Women’s focus should be on local, not national, affairs. - It would undermine a system that worked. - Women had not fought to defend their country. - Women were represented by their husbands.

Answer 93

- The issue of voting rights had to be considered in 1918 because many men had lost the right to vote as a result of serving overseas during the First World War. It was also felt that as men from all classes had fought in the war, all should be rewarded. This provided an opportunity to discuss women’s voting rights at the same time. - Women had contributed to the war effort at home and in non-combat roles overseas, proving they could take part in the defence of the country. - Women had provided invaluable work during the war and should be rewarded. - With many men away at war, women had proven themselves responsible and capable of maintaining a safe country. - The suffragettes had stopped their violence and aided the war effort. The government was worried that they might start up a violent campaign again now that the war was over. - David Lloyd-George had replaced Herbert Asquith as prime minister and he was much more supportive of women’s right to vote than Asquith had been.

Answer 94

Extended the franchise to all women over the age of 30, as well as all men over the age of 21, giving some degree of female enfranchisement and full universal suffrage to adult men.

Answer 95

Following the 1918 Representation of the People Act, the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) and the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) disbanded. The NUWSS become the new National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship (NUSEC), with Eleanor Rathbone replacing Millicent Fawcett as leader of the group.

Answer 96

- equal pay for equal work - equality in sexual conduct and morals - benefits to provide for widows with children - equality in the franchise - equal recognition of mothers as guardians - equal access to the legal profession

Answer 97

The NUESC continued to campaign peacefully and, despite a failure to equalise the franchise under the Labour government of Ramsay MacDonald in 1924, equality of the franchise was passed by the Conservative government of Stanley Baldwin in 1928. The Representation of the People Act 1928 extended the franchise to all citizens over the age of 21, regardless of gender.

Answer 98

Unlike previous efforts to extend the franchise, the extension to 18–20-year-olds in 1969 came about as a result of MPs reacting to social changes, rather than to a campaign or public demand.Since the Second World War, the role and status of 18–20-year-olds had been changing, with more gaining employment, higher education and financial independence, even though the law still regarded anyone under 21 as a minor. As part of their new status, 18–20-year-olds were trying to get married earlier, buy or rent their own home, secure bank accounts and make a will, but the law did not recognise them as capable adults. This led to some notable cases where 19- and 20-year-olds were classed as orphans and made a ward of the court, despite being financially independent. In addition, without parental consent, young adults were unable to access civil recognition for things that should have been commonplace.

Answer 99

A committee was set up under Justice John Latey to consider whether or not to lower the age of majority to 18, in order to reflect the changing nature of society. The focus of the Latey Committee was to review issues relating to marriage, wardship, contracts and property.

Answer 100

- 18-year-olds were more financially astute and independent than in previous generations - 18-year-olds were more physically developed than in previous generations - 18-year-olds were increasingly mature and better educated than in previous generations - Radio and television meant that young people were better informed than in previous generations - The age of 21 was an arbitrary anachronism that no longer served any valid purpose

Answer 101

Based on the Latey Committee’s suggestions and the passage of other legislation, notably the Marriage Act 1949 which lowered the age at which a person could marry without parental consent to 18, the Representation of the People Act 1969 was introduced and passed, meaning that anyone over the age of 18 could vote, regardless of race, gender or wealth.

Answer 102

In 1866, the first petition to give women the right to vote was presented to parliament. Following its failure to extend the franchise to women, a variety of movements across the country were created, beginning with the Manchester Society for Women’s Suffrage. he NUWSS was an internally democratic group with members electing their president and decisions being made through elected committees. Most of the members were middle class and would usually campaign for other women’s rights issues, such as marriage rights and employment rights. Anyone could join the NUWSS and some men did join the group.

Answer 103

- writing letters - writing pamphlets and other material for publication - giving educational lectures - organising petitions - holding peaceful marches and protests

Answer 104

By 1914, the NUWSS had more than 100,000 members in 400 branches spread across the whole country.

Answer 105

The Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was nicknamed the ‘Suffragettes’. The organisation was founded by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, in 1903. It was initially based in Manchester and drew much of its support from working-class women, though it started to recruit more middle- and upper-class women when it moved to London in 1906.

Answer 106

- to secure equal voting rights for women - to have a female-only membership - to be a group of deeds or action, not words - to focus only on the issue of political equality and nothing else

Answer 107

The Pankhursts had been frustrated by the slow pace of change of the NUWSS and founded the WSPU with a view to using violent and illegal protest methods to draw attention to the cause and put pressure on the government.

Answer 108

- disrupting political party meetings - chaining themselves to public railings - smashing windows - attacking or fighting police officers - blowing up buildings - burning buildings - destroying letters in post boxes - going on hunger strike in prison

Answer 109

A WSPU protest resulted in a fight with police that saw many women assaulted, both physically and sexually, by the police. Some members of the public felt the police had acted inappropriately but many thought the women had brought it upon themselves. The government was fearful that a woman on hunger strike in prison might die and become a martyr to the cause, thus gaining public sympathy. A policy of force feeding led to criticism of the government

Answer 110

the government passed the Cat and Mouse Act, whereby a woman on the brink of death would be temporarily released from prison in order to regain her strength at home and then be returned to jail when she was strong enough. The work of the Suffragettes certainly raised the public profile of the cause of women’s voting rights, but at a cost.

Answer 111

Having worked with the WSPU to organise a procession in London in 1908, the NUWSS became alarmed that the violent actions of the suffragettes were causing hostility from the government towards the cause.

Answer 112

public opinion was firmly against the WSPU and its cause, making it easy for the government to ignore its demands. When war broke out in 1914, the WSPU promised to end violent methods for the duration of the war and began to help the government to organise women workers. They put pressure on men to volunteer to fight by shaming them in public.

Answer 113

- The violence was sensational and meant the media reported on these acts, raising public awareness of the issue of women’s suffrage. - Regular violent actions kept the public fearful of an attack and therefore kept the issue in the public eye. - The violent methods led to brutal suppression by the police, which created sympathy for the suffragettes. - People who were already opposed to giving the vote to women were not going to be any more put off by the use of violence, so there was little to be lost by its use.

Answer 114

- The violence seemed to prove that women were not responsible enough to vote. - The government could not be seen to be giving in to terrorists, which prevented them from extending the right. - The violence turned many moderate men and women away from the cause. - Membership of the WSPU was decreasing by 1913 as people turned to the peaceful NUWSS. - The peaceful work of women during the First World War played the crucial role in gaining the right to vote, rather than earlier violent actions.

Answer 115

Suffragists: - Membership was open to all. - The organisation was internally democratic. - They used peaceful methods of protest. - They tried to work with the government. - The organisation had a national network of committees. Suffragettes: - Membership was open to women only. - The organisation was run by the Pankhursts, with no involvement of the members. - They used violent and illegal methods of protest. - They tried to intimidate the government. - The organisation was centred around London (after 1906).

Answer 116

Traditionally in the UK, criminals have lost the franchise and been denied the right to vote when they are incarcerated. With the loss of the right to vote, prisoners can no longer participate as full members of society and, in effect, lose part of their citizenship. A small but persistent campaign has attempted to have the franchise extended to at least some prisoners. This was begun by the legal challenges of John Hirst (see the case study on page 220) and, following the ruling of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in Hirst v UK (2005), which declared that the blanket ban on all prisoners was a violation of their human rights, other groups, including the Howard League for Penal Reform, the Prison Reform Trust and Amnesty International, have campaigned to put pressure on the government to recognise its legal obligations and give at least some prisoners the right to vote.

Answer 117

- supported more than 2,000 legal challenges from prisoners denied the right to vote - produced articles - set up petitions - used their insider status to lobby politicians

Answer 118

he goal of the campaign is to extend the franchise to prisoners serving less than 1 year, in order to comply with the ECtHR ruling and ensure the full rights of prisoners are recognised so that, while they lose their liberty, they do not lose their citizenship or basic human rights. With approximately 48,000 prisoners affected in the UK, this is a small but important issue that addresses the nature of voting in the UK. Is the right to vote a fundamental right that should not be denied, or is it a privilege for those who contribute to society?

Answer 119

- John Hirst was born in Yorkshire and raised in a Barnardo’s children’s home. He entered into a life of crime as a young man and in 1979 beat his landlady to death. In 1980, he was convicted of manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility and sentenced to 15 years in prison. - In total, Hirst spent 24 years in jail, with the additional sentences mostly for violent protests and rioting as he fought against life and conditions in prison. In the 1990s, he began a legal campaign to restore prisoners’ right to vote. - The High Court dismissed his challenge in 2001 but Hirst launched a new appeal under the Human Rights Act which was successfully upheld by the European Court of Human Rights in 2005.

Answer 120

- The denial of the right to vote removes a sense of civic responsibility, making rehabilitation harder. - There is no evidence that loss of the franchise acts as a deterrent. - The right to vote is fundamental and cannot be removed. - Removal of the vote makes a prisoner a non-person and further alienates them from society. - The European Court of Human Rights has ruled that the blanket ban on prisoners is a violation of the Human Rights Act.

Answer 121

- Those who commit a custodial crime against society should lose the right to have a say in how that society is run. - The threat of losing the right to vote prevents crime and enhances civic responsibility. - Giving convicted criminals the right to have a say in how laws are made would undermine the principle of justice. - Prisoners are concentrated in certain constituencies where they are unlikely to remain once free, so they should not be able to choose the local representatives for those communities.

Answer 122

Votes at 16 is a coalition of a number of different groups that believe the franchise should be extended to 16- and 17-year-olds. The campaign believes that 16- and 17-year-olds should be granted the vote on the basis of the principle of Engage, Empower and Inspire

Answer 123

Votes at 16 will engage 16 and 17 year olds, who hold many responsibilities in our society, to influence key decisions that affect their lives and ensure youth issues are represented

Answer 124

Votes at 16 will empower 16 and 17 year olds, through a democratic right, to influence decisions that will define their future

Answer 125

Votes at 16 will inspire young people to get involved in our democracy

Answer 126

- give full consent to medical treatment - leave school and enter work - pay income tax and national insurance - Obtain tax credits and welfare benefits in their own right - Consent to social relationships - Get married - Change their name by deed poll - Become director of a company - Joined the armed forces - Become a member of a trade union or a cooperative society

Answer 127

- the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey - Austria - Nicaragua - Brazil - Ecuador - in Länder or state elections in Germany - Hungary, if married - Slovenia, if employed - Argentina, if they choose to (it is compulsory after 18) - Scotland, for the Scottish independence referendum of 2014

Answer 128

- British Youth Council - Children’s Rights Alliance for England - National Union of Students - Public Achievement - Scottish Youth Parliament

Answer 129

- The oppourtunity to adopt a lord - The oppourtunity to email your MP - Suggestions of how to bring awarness of the campaign - Passing a model motion - Resources for schools - Engaging community groups - Planning a campaign - Advice on lobbying representatives

Answer 130

The campaign to extend the franchise to 16- and 17-year-olds has been gaining strength, with 16 local councils, the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and Northern Irish Assembly all voting to support votes at 16, while repeated debates and motions in parliament show that the number of MPs and peers supporting the extension is rising, though still not at a majority.

Answer 131

One of the fundamental aspects of democracy is that it allows citizens to participate in the process. Participation can take many forms, but it should be about the citizen taking an active role and doing something to contribute to a political debate or process.

Answer 132

When it comes to participation, a citizen must be active and actually doing something; watching a television programme is not active or participation, but contributing to an online discussion forum is active and therefore is participation. As such, there are many ways to participate.

Answer 133

- voting - joining a party and helping it to campaign - joining a pressure group and helping to promote it - organising or signing a petition - going on a march - going on strike - writing a letter - standing for public office

Answer 134

- e-petitions - blogging - protesting on social media - organising a demonstration via social media

Answer 135

New methods of participation are welcomed as a means of promoting participation and political engagement. In many ways this can be seen to have been successful, with the growing engagement in online debates and political campaigns conducted through Twitter and other platforms. However, clicking ‘like’ is a limited form of participation, as is forwarding a Tweet or link, requiring minimal effort or engagement. Furthermore, anonymous comments are a weak and undemocratic form of participation, and can lead to trolling. A Twitterbot can be used to generate automated posts on Twitter, which can make it appear that there is a great deal of participation going on and therefore a lot of public support. This can cause politicians to adopt positions based on ‘fake participation’.

Answer 136

- Electoral participation - Party Membership - The end of corporatism

Answer 137

The most important form of participation is voting, where citizens transfer power to elected officials and hold them to account. Given the role of parliamentary sovereignty, the most important elections are the general elections to the Westminster Parliament.

Answer 138

usually above 75%, and reached 84% in 1950, suggesting a reasonably high level of participation on a par, if not above, many equivalent states.

Answer 139

71%, which meant that the landslide Labour win by 179 seats.

Answer 140

Since 1997, general election turnout has been at historically low levels, despite the seemingly close and uncertain contests in 2010 and 2015: - 2001: 59% — the lowest ever turnout for a general election - 2005: 61% - 2010: 65% - 2015: 66%

Answer 141

- Scottish Parliament election 2011: 50% - European Union election 2014: 34% - Police and crime commissioner (PCC) elections 2012: average 12–14%, lowest 8% - Alternative vote (AV) referendum 2011: 42%

Answer 142

- As elections are the main method of participation, if people are not voting they are not involved in the process and are therefore not engaged. This raises the question of legitimacy of elected officials. The Labour Party won a landslide majority in 2001 with only 26% of all registered voters actually voting for it. To put it another way, 74% of registered voters did not bestow a mandate on the government that launched the invasion of Iraq. - Low turnout can allow small extremist parties to gain a larger share of the vote, raise their profile and even obtain representation. It also leads to a lack of accountability, as politicians do not need to fear an electorate that does not turn out to hold them to account.

Answer 143

Another common form of participation is to join a political party and get involved with the activities and campaigns it organises. In the 1950s, Labour had more than 1 million members, thanks, in part, to its trade union affiliation, while the Conservative Party had 2.8 million members. As recently as 1983, 3.8% of the UK population was a member of a political party, reflecting a strong level of participation at the heart of British politics, as well as ensuring that party activists reflected a reasonable proportion of society. Since the 1980s, there has been a rapid decline in party membership, with less than 1% of the population currently a member of any political party and membership of all parties below the postwar totals. However, since the 2015 general election, Labour Party membership has been growing rapidly, thought to be due to the introduction of cheap membership fees and the buzz created by Jeremy Corbyn’s leadership bid.

Answer 144

The decline in party membership suggests that people are disillusioned with the main parties in the UK and are not engaged by them. It also shows a lack of participation in the political process. This is a problem for the parties as it reduces their funds and their pool of committed activists who campaign for them. It also means there is a much more limited choice of candidates to put up for election at all levels. For the public, it means there is a smaller group of people influencing the direction of party policy, which has an impact on everyone.

Answer 145

Corporatism refers to the process of ‘incorporating’ different groups into the workings of government. In the 1970s, this was used to describe the close working relationship, or partnership, between the government, business and the trade union movement (or workers).

Answer 146

As prime minister, Margaret Thatcher distrusted group activity and tended to favour individual and free market policies. As such, she weakened the power of the trade union movement and reduced the role of key economic groups, such as the Confederation of British Industry (CBI), in working closely in the processes of government. The result of this has been a decline in the power of group activity, particularly in trade union activity, and a decline in participation, as well as union membership. With the decline in power and influence of trade union groups, workers are left with a much weaker voice to represent their concerns or needs to the government. The result is that there has been a decline in the number of people willing to fight for collective interests and hold the government to account.

Answer 147

- Increasing Turnout - More parties - pressure group membership - social campaigns

Answer 148

Since 2001, general election turnout has been increasing in the UK, suggesting that people are increasingly engaging and participating. The very high levels of turnout in the Scottish independence referendum and the EU referendum show that when opinion is divided, and the issue is one that people care about, they will engage and vote. The population of the UK is much larger than it has been in the past. Turnout percentages may be lower, but in terms of numbers, more people are voting than ever before.

Answer 149

Through much of the period of high party membership, two major parties dominated the electoral landscape, typically receiving about 80–90% of the vote between them. The UK now has 11 parties represented in parliament, with a sizeable third party and a far greater range of manifestos to choose from. With more parties, there is a wider spread of party membership. New initiatives, such as Labour’s £3 membership fee to be a registered supporter and be allowed to vote for the party leader, have made joining parties easier and driven up membership.

Answer 150

Even though party membership is declining, membership of pressure groups has increased markedly since the 1980s. People will often be members of a variety of groups and participate through these, rather than the traditional party system. The largest pressure groups have memberships in the millions and there are thousands of groups operating across the UK, which shows that the public are still finding ways to participate in group activities. Rather than there being a participation crisis, the nature of participation has changed.

Answer 151

The internet and social media have provided a means for more people to participate in campaigns and to share information. In the past, getting people to sign a petition, raising awareness through a protest or vigil, or holding a mass rally, took time, effort and a lot of organisation. By making it easier and cheaper to get involved in campaigns, more people have the opportunity to participate in a way that suits them. For example, the ‘Justice for the 96’ campaign was able to promote and encourage people to participate by signing an online participation to reopen the inquest into the Hillsborough disaster, and the ‘Occupy’ movement was able to use social media to coordinate and encourage supporters to occupy London in 2011. More than anything, if there is a public outcry over an issue, people will tend to turn to an online petition to raise awareness, express their opinions and put pressure on the government. None of this would have been possible without the development of social campaigns.

Answer 152

1.2 million

Answer 153

organisations that usually have a single interest or goal. Some groups campaign for a cause that their members believe in, such as ending the abuse of human rights (Amnesty International), or they may be sectional groups, where they campaign for the interests of their members, or a section of society, such as supporting doctors (the British Medical Association).

Answer 154

Unlike political parties, pressure groups do not look to gain power, but want to influence those in power by generating public support and persuading the government to support their point of view. In this sense, pressure groups are a great example of pluralism in the UK.

Answer 155

- sectional - casual

Answer 156

Sectional groups look after their own section of society. Often these are professional associations, like the British Medical Association (BMA) or a trade union such as the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT). The members of these groups will usually have the same or a similar occupation and shared interests. Sectional groups tend to have closed membership, so only workers in a particular occupation can join a specific group.

Answer 157

Sectional groups act in the best interests of their members, usually trying to pressure those in power to get the best deal possible for their members. While sectional groups may campaign on a number of issues, their interest is with the benefit of a single section of society.

Answer 158

Causal groups campaign for a particular cause or issue, often one that does not directly affect its members. Causal groups are therefore campaigning on behalf of other people — usually those who are unable to campaign for themselves. Members of causal groups often come from a wide variety of backgrounds and the particular cause may be the only thing they have in common. These groups are relatively easy to join and membership is open to everyone.

Answer 159

Causal groups often aim to improve society in some way and may take the form of a charity, such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) or Oxfam. They will often perform a wide variety of activities, from fundraising and raising awareness, to research and education, as well as putting pressure on those in power.

Answer 160

pay rise by 14.4% for the lowest payed and 9.2% for the highest.

Answer 161

5% pay rise and a one off payment of £1655

Answer 162

A further distinction is made between groups with insider and outsider status. Insider groups have a special relationship with the government and are given access to officials and decision-makers. Outsider groups do not have such close links with the government and may resort to activities that generate attention from the press in order to publicise their cause and put pressure on the government to take the action they desire.

Answer 163

sectional groups: - Sectional groups advance or protect the interests of their members. - Sectional groups have closed membership. - Members of sectional groups tend to be motivated by self-interest. casual groups: - Causal groups tend to promote a value, ideal or principle. - Causal groups are open to all. - Members of causal groups tend to be motivated by altruistic considerations.

Answer 164

- lobbying - research and publish reports - give evidence at hearings - organise publicity campaigns - orgainse public demonstrations - publicity stunts - civil disobedience - go on strike - use a celebrity spokesperson - bring test cases to court - Digital campaigns

Answer 165

Groups meet with politicians and civil servants in order to argue their case and try to persuade them to adopt their ideas.

Answer 166

Research can provide evidence to support a group’s argument and can be used to inform politicians and raise public awareness of the cause.

Answer 167

Public consultations, legislative committees and select committees will hold hearings to help them determine a decision or action. By giving evidence and speaking on behalf of their members, groups can exert influence on those in a position of power.

Answer 168

Groups may organise publicity campaigns to raise public awareness of their cause. This might be to raise awareness of a particular issue and encourage the public to take action themselves, or it might be to encourage the public to put pressure on elected officials.

Answer 169

Groups may organise large demonstrations, such as marches and rallies, to demonstrate to those in power the strength and scale of support for their cause. A large demonstration is also likely to gain publicity and help spread awareness of the cause.

Answer 170

Small groups without the resources to pay for a media campaign may use publicity stunts in order to attract media attention and thereby gain publicity and generate awareness of their cause.

Answer 171

Some groups may use illegal methods as a form of civil disobedience, by disrupting public events or staging a sit-in in order to cause disruption and bring attention to their cause. This usually happens because they feel they have no other option.

Answer 172

Workers may go on strike to put pressure on those in power in order to try to reach an agreement with them. A strike can be damaging and unpopular for a government or organisation and may force them to accept the group’s demands.

Answer 173

Groups may recruit a celebrity spokesperson in order to raise the profile of the group, gain media attention and attract more support by sharing in the popularity of the celebrity.

Answer 174

Some groups provide legal expertise and bring a case or help to bring a case to court. In this way they can look to secure the rights of their members and ensure those rights are protected.

Answer 175

Groups may set up websites to promote their cause and use social media to publicise events and create viral campaigns.

Answer 176

Pressure groups are a key means of representation in the UK. While political parties try to appeal to and represent a wide cross section of society, pressure groups focus on a single issue and are able to represent the interests of a small group on a single cause. As there are many different types of pressure group and different causes, there are many factors that motivate people to join pressure groups.

Answer 177

People may join a pressure group if they feel they are not being represented by the main political parties. This is often the case with minority interests, such as gay rights, where membership of a group offers the individual the representation they feel they cannot get elsewhere.

Answer 178

People may join a pressure group because it reflects their beliefs. People who believe passionately in an issue or cause will look to join a group whose members think the same and share the same goals.

Answer 179

Some people join a pressure group for the opportunity to get involved in a political issue. This may be by, for example, attending a public demonstration or responding to a discussion group. It allows the individual to get involved and to express their beliefs.

Answer 180

Many people join a pressure group in order to get something out of it, rather than for the cause itself. People who take out breakdown cover will become a member of the AA, while people wishing to visit historic buildings may join the National Trust. While this boosts membership, it can mean the members are not particularly passionate about the issues and causes that are central to the group.

Answer 181

Some people may join a pressure group because they feel they have to, either for job protection (by joining a trade union), or because they see it as the only way to achieve a desired goal.

Answer 182

- Represntation - Personal beliefs - Participation - Material beliefs - Need

Answer 183

- An online campaign can be a cheap way of spreading information and raising awareness, particularly if it goes viral. - The internet makes it easier and cheaper to coordinate a large group or an event. - The internet gives people an easier and more convenient means of participation.

Answer 184

- The marketplace can be swamped with groups, making it difficult to stand out. If a campaign does go viral, there is no way of guaranteeing that people will understand the message behind it. - To be really successful, a group needs a professional website and expertise, which can be expensive. - The internet can lead to ‘slacktivism’ where people might ‘like’ something but fail to engage with the wider issue, making them less likely to get involved or join the group.

Answer 185

The success or failure of a pressure group can be judged on whether or not the group achieves its goals. A pressure group that looks to change government policy on an issue is successful if it achieves this change, whereas a pressure group that seeks to prevent a government action, such as going to war, will have failed if war is declared. There are many ways in which pressure groups may be successful and many reasons why a pressure group may fail to achieve its goal(s).

Answer 186

- Insider status - Wealth - Large membership - Organisation - Expertise - Celebrity Endorsement

Answer 187

Having close links to the government, insider pressure groups are able to advise and influence ministers directly as events are happening.

Answer 188

Financial resources allow pressure groups to pay for things that may help promote their cause, such as lobbyists, adverts and websites.

Answer 189

Having a lot of members means you control a large section of the electorate and also have a number of people ready to take action in terms of signing petitions and organising protests.

Answer 190

Effective management and coordination will allow a group to maximise its resources and target them effectively to help achieve its goals.

Answer 191

A pressure group that has knowledge and expertise over a particular policy area is more likely to be listened to and respected by the government and the public.

Answer 192

A popular celebrity will generate press interest and raise the profile of a cause, and may help to draw members to the group.

Answer 193

In 2014, the Howard League for Penal Reform successfully campaigned to end the ban on prisoners receiving books sent to them by family or friends.

Answer 194

In 2012, the British Bankers’ Association paid lobbyists to persuade ministers to cut corporation tax and taxes on banks’ overseas subsidiaries.

Answer 195

In 2015, the RSPB utilised over 500,000 members for its Big Garden Birdwatch.

Answer 196

In 2012, the RMT Union organised a series of strikes to secure a bonus for members during the Olympics.

Answer 197

In 2016, the AA provided evidence and statistics to persuade the government to increase the penalties for using a mobile phone while driving.

Answer 198

In 2009, Joanna Lumley and the Gurkha Justice Campaign secured equal rights for British and Commonwealth soldiers.

Answer 199

- Chequebook membership — people may join a group for the material benefits and so be less likely to get involved in a campaign. - ‘Slacktivism’— people may be willing to click ‘like’ or forward an online post, but they may have no more than a superficial engagement with the issue, making them less committed to a campaign. - Small membership — limited numbers can make it difficult to organise public demonstrations, raise funds or gain media attention. - Outsider status — being an outsider can make it much more challenging for a group to gain access to the people in power.

Answer 200

- the goal contradicts a government policy - the government can resist prssure from the group - countervailing forces - the goal of the groups act against popular opinion - the group alienates the public

Answer 201

If the government is determined to follow a particular policy then it will be very difficult for a pressure group to persuade the government to change its mind.

Answer 202

If those in power are in a strong enough position, they will feel able to resist a group’s campaign and effectively ignore it.

Answer 203

A pressure group may find itself campaigning against another, more powerful or more popular, pressure group which ‘wins’ the debate.

Answer 204

A group is more likely to fail if it is campaigning for a cause that is not popular with the public, as governments will be more inclined to follow popular feelings on an issue.

Answer 205

A group may make itself unpopular by committing acts that alienate public opinion. A groups that partakes in violent or criminal action will be regarded unfavourably and lose support for its goals.

Answer 206

The Conservative government (2015–) is determined to introduce new polices for a 7-day NHS, therefore the BMA campaign against the proposals has largely failed.

Answer 207

The Stop the War Coalition organised mass rallies and activities to stop the invasion of Iraq in 2003. However, with a large majority and cross-party support in parliament, the Blair government was able to resist the pressure and ignore the group’s demands.

Answer 208

The pro-smoking group Forrest has failed to prevent restrictions on smoking in the UK, largely because it has lost out to the group ASH, which has successfully campaigned for restrictions on smoking.

Answer 209

Groups such as the Coalition for Marriage failed in their campaign against the legal recognition of gay marriage because most public opinion was in favour of it. The group was therefore campaigning against a change that had public support.

Answer 210

Violent groups such as ALF and PETA fail to achieve their goals because the public are opposed to their methods, even if they might support their causes. The same can be true of strike action if the public begins to blame the trade unions for the disruption caused.

Answer 211

- Think-tanks - Lobbyists - Corporations

Answer 212

- A think-tank is a group that has been formed with the specific purpose of formulating and developing policy ideas. - The role of developing policy was traditionally done by the parties, but think-tanks offer an alternative that is based on focused and academic research rather than partisan ideals. Consequently, the use of think-tanks grew markedly under Tony Blair’s leadership of the Labour Party, as he sought to develop his Third Way policy ideas, which were not widely supported by the party membership. - Think-tanks may be single issue groups, such as the Adam Smith Institute, which focuses on free market issues, or they may pursue a general agenda, such as Reform, which develops proposals to better deliver public services and economic prosperity. - Think-tanks are privately funded by a group or individual that wishes to have workable ideas made into government policy. Like pressure groups, think-tanks attempt to persuade the government to adopt their policy goals, but unlike many pressure groups their methods rely on working with the government of the day or aligning themselves with a particular party, rather than on a populist campaign.

Answer 213

- In the 1870s, the US President Ulysses Grant would often visit his favourite hotel for a drink. When he entered the lobby, people would begin petitioning him for jobs and favours. He called them the ‘lobbyists’ and the term stuck. Lobbying is the process of meeting with key political figures and trying to persuade them to support your aims. Today, there are professional lobbying firms which employ people who have contacts with, and access to, key political figures. Corporations and other groups employ lobbying firms and lobbyists to gain this level of access. - Access does not guarantee the desired outcome but a face-to-face meeting adds a personal element, while having a minister’s friend represent your interests can give a group a distinct advantage.

Answer 214

- Corporations often work closely with government in order to develop practical legislation. Government consults corporations on certain policy ideas to check that they are practical and also to get help to implement key proposals. - Corporations also look to exert pressure on those in charge in order to gain an advantage. While this may be through lobbying themselves, or employing lobbyists, corporations are also able to exert influence and pressure through control of a key sector of the economy. - Corporations may pressurise the government to give them more favourable legislation or financial assistance by threatening to relocate. For example, motor corporations, such as Nissan or Ford, might propose to relocate their manufacturing plants to elsewhere in the world, which would result in increased unemployment and a loss of economic strength for the UK. - Other corporations, such as those in the banking sector, might threaten to relocate their main offices from London to another country. Not only would this weaken the British economy, it would also lead to the loss of a major source of employment, partly through those employed directly by the corporation but also from support industries that sell services to those employees, such as cleaners, coffee shops, IT companies, restaurants and taxis.

Answer 215

In the USA, the ‘lobbying industry’ is based on K Street in Washington, DC, and is a $3.5 billion industry that directs approximately $3.5 trillion of government spending, as well as influencing legislation. It has also led to a phenomenon called ‘Revolving Door Syndrome’, where members of Congress or their staff leave their political jobs and go to work for a lobbying firm, while maintaining contact with their old colleagues.

Answer 216

Human rights, sometimes known as ‘natural rights’, are those rights and liberties that all people are automatically entitled to.

Answer 217

- absolute - universal - fundamental

Answer 218

meaning they cannot be compromised or diminished in any way

Answer 219

meaning they are applied to everyone equally, regardless of any other considerations, such as race or gender

Answer 220

meaning they are an essential part of life and cannot be removed for any reason

Answer 221

A British think-tank, the Westminster Social Policy Forum, met in June 2016 to discuss ‘how transgender equality issues are dealt with by Whitehall departments and agencies, how they are treated by schools, the NHS and the criminal justice system’, as well as ‘steps for achieving transgender equality, and how legislation — including the Gender Recognition Act, the Equality Act 2010 and the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act — is working for trans people’

Answer 222

The reason for the forum’s discussion was to ensure that trans people would be given the same legal rights and recognition as anyone else, as evidence of these rights being absolute, universal and fundamental. The discussion reflected the fact that these rights had not been applied to members of the transgender community and that their fundamental rights were being infringed, as demonstrated by a number of legal challenges to UK law based on: - trans women in male prisons - toilet facilities - birth certificates

Answer 223

- Until the Human Rights Act was passed in 1998, rights were characterised in a negative way, meaning a person had a right to do anything as long as it was not expressly forbidden by the law. The Human Rights Act gave rights a degree of codification and for the first time clearly set out the positive rights that a citizen holds. - Many of the rights that people in Britain took for granted were simply based on common law and therefore had limited legal authority and could easily be superseded by statute law. With the introduction of the Human Rights Act, much of common law was replaced by clear statute law, giving citizens much greater legal protection and securing more democratic freedoms for the people

Answer 224

Positive rights are clearly given to a citizen, usually in the form of a constitutional protection.

Answer 225

Negative rights are not explicitly set out and only exist because of an absence of any law banning them.

Answer 226

- 1215 - Magna Carta - 1689 - Bill of Rights - 1973 - ECHR - 1984 - Data protection act - 1998 - Human rights act - 2000 - freedom of information act - 2010 - equality act

Answer 227

- Rights are now clearly enshrined in statute law. - Legislation has to comply with the Human Rights Act. - Citizens can access rights protection through UK-based courts.

Answer 228

- The Act is not entrenched and therefore it can be replaced, as the Conservative Party has pledged to do with a British Bill of Rights - The Act cannot overturn primary legislation in parliament. - The Act can be ‘set aside’ by government, as happened with the derogation of the rights of terror suspects after 9/11.

Answer 229

- 2004 - A law that prevented a gay partner from inheriting a council flat was struck down as discrimination under the HRA. - 2011 - A special court ruled that local councils cannot force a vulnerable adult to live in a care home as it undermines their right to a family life. - 2012 - Home secretaries were repeatedly prevented from deporting Abu Qatada, a Jordanian national who was accused of having links to terrorist organisations, on the basis that the evidence against him was obtained through torture.

Answer 230

The Equality Act was introducedin 2010 as an attempt to simplify and codify a variety of Acts of Parliament, conventions and regulations that existed in different forms, and for different groups, across the UK. The Equality Act consolidated all measures relating to equality, based on gender, race, sexuality and disabilities, to ensure equal and consistent rights provisions.

Answer 231

The Freedom of Information Act was passed in 2000 to improve transparency in public bodies. Requests can be made to see information that relates to any public body, as long as it does not compromise national security. The MPs’ expenses scandal came to light in 2009 through a freedom of information request.

Answer 232

Along with rights, British citizens are given a number of key responsibilities. Although not often written down, these are duties which a citizen is expected to perform or abide by, in return for the rights and liberties that have being granted.

Answer 233

- respect and obey the law - pay taxes - ensure you do not act in a way that causes harm to others, either deliberately or negligently - perform specific duties in certain relationships, such as parents or public figures - show respect for parliament and government institutions (such as the police) - vote - serve on a jury

Answer 234

Political thinkers, like John Stuart Mill in the nineteenth century, considered civic responsibilities to be an integral part of civil rights and liberties. This view was further established in the European Convention on Human Rights. However, with the move to a more individualist society since the 1980s, there is a concern that civil responsibilities have been overlooked. As many civic duties are not expressly written down, proponents have argued that a British Bill of Rights would help to enshrine and make clear the civil responsibilities of a citizen, as well as their rights

Answer 235

- ensures protection from government abuse - leads to civil responsibilites - necessary for a free society

Answer 236

- can come at th expense of wider society - can hinder the efective operation of government

Answer 237

Since 1997, there have been a growing number of conflicts between governments and the judiciary, for the following reasons: - The introduction of the Human Rights Act has given judges more power to challenge government ministers. - The introduction of the Human Rights Act has made it easier for ordinary people to use the judicial system to challenge government measures. - The increased threat of terrorism has caused governments to take actions on the basis of national security which conflict with individual rights. - There is a perception that ministers are attempting to expand their powers at the expense of civil rights and liberties.

Answer 238

- anti-terrorism - deportation - detention - free speech and the right to protest - anti-social behaviour

Answer 239

With the growing rights consciousness in the UK, the issue of whether the judiciary, the government or parliament is best placed to defend citizens’ fundamental rights is one that needs serious consideration.

Answer 240

- Judges exercise the rule of law and can use the Human Rights Act and their power of judicial review to ensure rights in the UK are fully respected. - Enhanced measures for judicial independence have meant the judiciary is independent of the other two branches of the political system and can defend rights based only upon the law, without political pressure. - Judges are neutral and can therefore protect a person’s rights without discrimination or considerations of their beliefs, character or other traits, making them more effective at upholding individual rights.

Answer 241

- Judges are undemocratic and unaccountable so may abuse their position. They have no incentive to promote controversial cases. - While independent, senior judges work with parliament to advise on the legality of legislation. This means that judges have played a role in the creation of legislation and are less likely to approach issues over human rights with true independence or neutrality. - The lack of a codified constitution means the judiciary cannot strike down primary legislation. This means that, even if they decide there is an abuse of human rights, they are powerless to do anything about it, if it is enshrined in primary legislation. Judges can only apply the law as it stands. - Judges are unrepresentative and from a narrow social and gender background, making them less aware of the issues facing most people. There is a belief that judges naturally favour conservative and privileged groups over other individuals.

Answer 242

- Parliament holds sovereignty, therefore it can determine what rights are in the UK and whether or not they should be enforced. - Parliament is more representative of the people and so is better able to reflect the values of society and understand different individuals. - Parliament introduced and passed all of the Acts relating to human rights, so it has a history of being the institution that has promoted and defended human rights in the UK. - Members of Parliament represent their constituents and are in a position to raise the issue of citizens’ rights with government ministers, where they feel those rights are at risk or have been violated. - Parliament is democratically elected and so is more accountable to the people for its defence of human rights

Answer 243

- Short-term political considerations may be more important than defending human rights. - Parliament has the ability to suspend the Human Rights Act to achieve its goals. - Parliament is usually dominated by the governing party, leading to a tyranny of the majority and leaving very few effective checks on government actions that contradict human rights. - The role of the House of Lords undermines the democratic arguments for parliament. - MPs may be reluctant to champion the cause of human rights if it benefits an unpopular element, such as terror suspects or criminals.

Answer 244

There are many pressure groups in the UK and around the world that have taken on the role of defending rights. These groups raise awareness of threats to civil rights, promote the application of rights and put pressure on the government to ensure rights are protected. Key groups include: - Liberty - Amnesty International - Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions - Equality Now - Witness

Answer 245

- Compulsory voting - Reform of the voting system - Reform of the house of lords - greater recall of MPs - Reform of the house of commons - Reforming the develved system - Reform of the monarchy - Codifying the constitution - E-Democracy

Answer 246

- Compulsory voting could be introduced to the UK in order to increase public participation at all levels. A system that fines people who do not vote, perhaps £20–£50 a time, would encourage more people to vote in elections and referendums. By adding a ‘none of the above’ option to ballot papers, people would not be forced to vote for something against their wishes. - This system has been proven to work in Australia and Belgium, where turnout rates are typically between 93% and 96%. By increasing turnout, participation and legitimacy would also be improved. - People might take a greater interest in political issues if voting was compulsory and might be more inclined to join a pressure group or political party, leading to improved education and participation. The money raised from fines could be spent on public education programmes. - Despite these arguments, there is a strong belief that the right to vote also includes the right not to vote and any attempt to force people into voting would undermine a fundamental British value. There is a risk that people might not educate themselves and might simply select a candidate at random. Repeated forced voting could lead to public apathy and resentment.

Answer 247

- In the 2015 general election, the Conservatives won a majority of MPs with 36% of the vote. UKIP gained 1 MP with nearly 4 million votes, while the SNP gained 53 seats with fewer than 1.5 million votes. - Changing the voting system to a more proportional one, such as single transferable vote (STV) or closed party list, would distribute votes more fairly, end the problem of safe seats and reduce the number of wasted votes. There might be greater engagement in the political process if everyone believed their vote mattered. - However, alternative systems can be confusing and far more complicated than the first-past-the-post (FPTP) system. Proportional systems can lead to extremist parties gaining seats, and can weaken the link between a representative and their constituency. Evidence from places in the UK where alternative systems are used also suggests that they do not increase turnout.

Answer 248

- There are a number of proposals for making the House of Lords more democratic. The simplest of these would be to remove the remaining hereditary peers. This might not increase democracy but would improve legitimacy. There are also proposals for a fully or partially elected House of Lords, which would improve democratic representation and give the second chamber greater authority in dealing with the House of Commons. - However, it is possible that an elected second chamber would simply mirror the House of Commons, while a more powerful second chamber could lead to gridlock politics with nothing being decided or passed. An elected House of Lords would see a reduction in the number of experts and an increase in professional politicians, losing a source of advice and expertise that currently informs legislation.

Answer 249

A system for recalling MPs was introduced just before the 2015 general election but it remains quite limited. A more rigorous method of recall would make MPs more responsive to the demands of their constituents for fear of being recalled and removed. It would also ensure that all MPs worked hard to keep in touch with their constituents. However, the continued prospect of being recalled and defeated might hinder MPs in the other aspects of their role. It would also undermine ‘Burkean representation’ and the idea that MPs should be able to use their judgement and not just follow the wishes of their constituents. A tougher system of recall might lead to on MP simply acting as a spokesperson for their constituency.

Answer 250

- The House of Commons has a number of issues that undermines its image as the home of British democracy. Reforms to make Prime Minister’s Question Time less adversarial, to make all members of select committees elected by the whole house, to bestow more power on the speaker to control debates and behaviour, and to introduce more modern technology for online questioning and public scrutiny stages would all make the House of Commons more collegiate, less adversarial and more open to the public. - However, many of these traditional elements of the Commons are popular and do not face serious or broad calls for reform. Any issues over the adversarial nature of British politics would need to be tackled at a fundamental level, not just by reforming parliament.

Answer 251

Edmund Burke was an eighteenth- century MP and political writer who proclaimed a trustee model of representation. For Burke, the job of a representative was to make judgements in the best interests of their constituents, not simply to do what they wanted them to do. In this view, MPs sometimes have to make decisions and take action that they believe is right, even though it may not be popular or represent the wishes of their constituents.

Answer 252

- The West Lothian Question underlies the most pressing need for reform of the House of Commons because representatives from Scotland are able to vote on issues that do not affect their constituents, such as university tuition fees or an extension to Sunday trading in England and Wales. - The Conservative government tried to reform the system by introducing ‘English votes for English laws’ (EVEL) in 2015. There is now an extra stage in the legislative process where only MPs representing English (or English and Welsh) constituencies can vote on an issue which affects only England (or England and Wales). However, the whole chamber still votes on the final stages of a bill and which parts of the UK are affected by a bill is often not clear-cut. The process also runs the risk of creating two types of MPs, which undermines the principle of a legislative chamber. Another possible reform would be to introduce further devolution to England, either through regional assemblies or through an English assembly or parliament, to mirror the powers of those in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. This would leave Westminster as a federal government overseeing national affairs, such as defence and foreign relations. But there is currently little demand for English devolution and when regional devolution was proposed for the northeast in 2004, it was rejected by 77.93%.

Answer 253

While currently popular and with limited power, an unelected hereditary monarchy is undemocratic. Introducing an elected head of state, whether by having an elected monarchy or by replacing the monarchy with a presidency, would make the UK more democratic, but there is little popular will for this reform and the costs of a president would be far more than the system of monarchy. In addition, an elected head of state would have more power and authority, and would therefore create a rival centre of power, undermining the principle of parliamentary sovereignty.

Answer 254

Individual rights can too easily be reformed and changed by the government of the day. The introduction of a codified constitution would help to entrench citizens’ rights and may lead to greater public education, but by transferring sovereignty to a codified constitution rather than an elected parliament, much more power would be transferred to an unelected and unaccountable judiciary. In addition, an entrenched constitution might make it harder for the government of the day to carry out desirable reforms.

Answer 255

E-democracy refers to any electronic or digital method used to enhance democracy. It can take many forms, from creating a website to promote information and make it easier to access information, to more complicated measures such as online or text voting. The aim of e-democracy is to make it easier and more accessible for the population to engage with the democratic process.

Answer 256

- online voting - online questioning of ministers - digital campaigning - online public constitution of a bill

Answer 257

Would make it easier for people to vote

Answer 258

Would be difficult to monitor and ensure free votes

Answer 259

Would allow people to ask questions directly

Answer 260

Would undermine the role of MPs

Answer 261

Would reduce costs and make it easier for people to access information

Answer 262

Would disadvantage people unable to get online and risk increased partisanship

Answer 263

Would allow the public to give their thoughts on legislation before it is passed

Answer 264

Would undermine the legislative role of parliament and risk a tyranny of the minority

Answer 265

- Democracy was a fundamental principle in the writing of the US Constitution, although the people who drafted it were also concerned about a tyranny of the masses. For this reason, several anti-democratic measures were introduced to act as a check on the popular will, such as indirectly elected senators, the Electoral College and the presidential veto. - There has never been a national referendum in the USA, but many of the individual states regularly use direct democracy in the form of initiatives and propositions to allow the people a greater say in decision making. - The USA fought for independence on the basis of ‘no taxation without representation’, along the same lines as the demand to extend the franchise in the UK. Later, a key aspect of the American Civil War was granting citizenship and the right to vote to former slaves. Elsewhere in the world, the extension of the vote by class developed much earlier than in Britain, though the extension of the franchise to women and those aged 18 and over occurred at similar times around the world.

3.1.2.1 democracy and participation Flashcards

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