4.1.2 MEMORY

Question 1

who developed the cognitive interview

Answer 1

fisher and geiselman

Question 2

name the four techniques used in the cognitive interview

Answer 2

report everything
reinstate the context
reverse the order
change the perspective

Question 3

describe the report everything technique

Answer 3

the interviewer encourages the reporting of every single detail of the event without editing anything, witnesses should not leave anything out, even if they believe it to be insignificant or are not confident about it

Question 4

describe the reinstate the context technique

Answer 4

mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the original incident, the aim is to make memories accessible through contextual and emotional cues

Question 5

describe the reverse the order technique

Answer 5

events should be recalled in a different order from the original sequence, this is done to prevent expectations and prevents dishonesty

Question 6

describe the change the perspective technique

Answer 6

witnesses are asked to recall the event from multiple perspectives, eg imagining how it may have appeared to other witnesses or the perpetrator, this is done to disrupt expectations and the effect of our own schema

Question 7

which cognitive interview techniques apply to retrieval failure

Answer 7

report everything
reinstate the context

Question 8

which cognitive interview techniques apply to schema

Answer 8

reverse the order
change the perspective

Question 9

who developed the enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 9

fisher et al

Question 10

outline the characteristics of the enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 10

eye contact
reducing anxiety
minimise distraction
witness speaking slowly
open ended questions

Question 11

what is the purpose of the enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 11

to create a friendly relaxed environment which helps establish rapport and ultimately, recall more information

Question 12

ao3: describe kohnken et al’s meta analysis findings

Answer 12

conducted a meta-analysis of 55 studies to compare the effectiveness with standard police interviews and found the ECI consistently provided more accurate information

Question 13

ao3: describe kohnken et al’s findings in regards to the quality of the cognitive interview

Answer 13

found an 81% increase in correct information, but also a 61% increase in incorrect information

Question 14

define anxiety

Answer 14

a state of emotional and physical arousal

Question 15

what emotions are experienced during anxiety

Answer 15

worried thoughts, feelings of tension, increased heart rate, sweatiness

Question 16

outline johnson and scott’s procedure

Answer 16

participants believed they were taking part in a lab study
low anxiety - overheard casual conversation, man walked out holding pen with greasy hands
high anxiety - overheard a heated argument, man walked out holding a knife with bloody hands
participants were asked to pick man out from a set of photographs

Question 17

outline johnson and scott’s findings

Answer 17

low anxiety - 49% accurately chose
high anxiety - 33% accurately chose

Question 18

outline the conclusion made from johnson and scott’s study

Answer 18

tunnel theory = enhanced memory for central events due to weapon focus.

Question 19

outline yuille and cutshall’s procedure

Answer 19

study of a real life shooting in vancouver
shop owner shot a thief dead
21 witnesses - 13 took part in the study
interview 4-5 months after the incident and were compared with original police interviews
asked to rate how stressed they felt at the time of the incident

Question 20

outline yuille and cutshall’s findings

Answer 20

witnesses were very accurate and there was little change in accuracy
some details such as age and height were less accurate
participants reporting high stress : 88% accurate
participants reporting low stress : 75% accurate

Question 21

outline the work of deffenbacher

Answer 21

reviewed 21 studies of eye-witness testimony and noted contradictory findings, using the yerkes-dodson law

Question 22

outline the yerkes dodson law

Answer 22

fight or flight - increased alertness and improved recall - optimal level of anxiety - beyond this, recall suffers drastically

Question 23

ao3: outline pickels study into weapon focus

Answer 23

used a raw chicken, a handgun, a wallet, or scissors as hand held items in a hairdressing salon video
raw chicken : low anxiety high unusualness
a handgun : high anxiety high unusualness
a wallet : low anxiety low unusualness
scissors : high anxiety high unusualness

Question 24

ao3 : outline the findings and conclusion of pickels study into weapon focus

Answer 24

eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (chicken and a handgun)
people focus on the weapon because they are surprised by what they see, rather than because they are scared

Question 25

ao3 : outline christianason and hubinette’s study into the positive role of anxiety

Answer 25

interviewed 58 witnesses to bank robberies in sweden some witnesses were directly involved (bank workers), some were indirectly involved (bystanders)

Question 26

ao3 : outline the findings of christianason and hubinette’s study into the positive role of anxiety

Answer 26

recall was more than 75% accurate across all victims the direct victims were even more accurate

Question 27

define eyewitness testimony

Answer 27

the ability of the people to remember the details of an event, such as accidents or crimes which they themselves have observed

Question 28

define misleading information

Answer 28

incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event

Question 29

name the types of misleading information

Answer 29

leading questions post event discussion

Question 30

outline loftus and palmer's procedure

Answer 30

45 participants watched a video of a car accident and then were asked questions critical question: about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other five groups of participants each group given a different verb for the critical question: hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed

Question 31

outline loftus and palmer's findings

Answer 31

the mean estimated speed was calculated for each participant group speed estimates varied significantly leading questions biased the eyewitness's recall of the event

Question 32

name the two reasons leading questions effect eyewitness testimony

Answer 32

response-bias explanation substitution explanation

Question 33

describe response-bias explanation

Answer 33

wording has no real effect on the participants memory participants are encouraged to estimate a higher speed when the word smashed is used

Question 34

describe the substitution explanation

Answer 34

question alters the participants memory of the event participants are more likely to recall seeing broken glass when the word smashed is used

Question 35

outline gabbert et al's procedure

Answer 35

studied participants in pairs each pair watched a video of the same crime but from different points of view each participant saw elements the other could not both participants discussed what they had seen before completing a recall test

Question 36

outline gabbert et al's findings

Answer 36

71% of participants mistakenly recalled elements of the event they did not see in the video but picked up in the discussion

Question 37

name the two reasons post-event discussions affect eyewitness testimony

Answer 37

memory contamination memory conformity

Question 38

describe memory contamination

Answer 38

eye witness testimonies become altered or distorted following post-event discussion combine misinformation from other witnesses with their own memory

Question 39

describe memory conformity

Answer 39

witnesses go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right and they are wrong actual memory is unchanged

Question 40

ao3 : outline foster et al's findings

Answer 40

found that if participants thought they were watching a real-life robbery and that their responses would influence the trial, their identification was more accurate

Question 41

ao3 : zaragoza and mccloskey

Answer 41

argued that demand characteristics are likely to occur in eyewitness studies as participants want to appear helpful and not let the researcher down

Question 42

define retrieval failure

Answer 42

forgetting due to insufficient cues accessibility problem

Question 43

who created the encoding specificity principle

Answer 43

tulving

Question 44

outline the encoding specificity principle

Answer 44

a cue must be present at encoding and retrieval if cues are different, forgetting occurs

Question 45

name the two types of retrieval failure

Answer 45

context-dependant forgetting state-dependant forgetting

Question 46

outline godden and baddeley's procedure

Answer 46

deep sea divers were divided into four conditions: - learn words on land, recall on land - learn words underwater, recall on land - learn words on land, recall underwater - learn words underwater, recall underwater

Question 47

outline the findings of golden and baddeley's findings

Answer 47

accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions as external cues at learning were different from those at recall

Question 48

what did godden and baddeley research

Answer 48

context-dependant forgetting

Question 49

what did johnson and scott research

Answer 49

negative effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony

Question 50

what did yuille and cutshall research

Answer 50

positive effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony

Question 51

what did loftus and palmer research

Answer 51

the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony

Question 52

what did gabbert et al research

Answer 52

the effect of post-event discussion on eyewitness testimony

Question 53

outline carter and cassaday's procedure

Answer 53

participants divided into four conditions using antihistamines to alter their state: - learn words on drug, recall on drug - learn words on drug, recall not on drug - learn words not on drug, recall on drug - learn words not on drug, recall not on drug

Question 54

outline carter and cassaday's findings

Answer 54

accurate recall was significantly lower in the non matching conditions, as the internal cues available at learning were different from those at recall

Question 55

what did carter and cassaday research

Answer 55

state-dependant forgetting

Question 56

outline baker et al's study and findings

Answer 56

students were placed into one of four groups, had to learn a list of 15 words in two minutes and recall 24 hours later - gum, no gum - gum, gum - no gum, gum - no gum, no gum average number of correct recall was: 8, 11, 7, 8.5

Question 57

what did baker et al research

Answer 57

context-dependant forgetting

Question 58

ao3: outline darley et al's research

Answer 58

researched the impact of marijuana on an individual’s recollection found that individuals who were under the influence of marijuana when they put money in a ‘safe place’ were less able to recall where this location was once they were no longer under the influence of the drug

Question 59

ao3: outline godden and baddeley's variation using recognition tests

Answer 59

replicated their underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall participants had to say whether they recognised a word read to them from a list, instead of retrieving it themselves when recognition was tested there was no context-dependent effect, performance was the same in all four conditions

Question 60

describe interference as an explanation of forgetting

Answer 60

accessibility problem which occurs when two pieces of information have to compete with each other and end up clashing

Question 61

what factors may affect interference

Answer 61

time sensitivity similarity

Question 62

name the two types of interference

Answer 62

proactive rectroactive

Question 63

define proactive interference

Answer 63

when an older memory interferes with a newer one

Question 64

define retroactive interference

Answer 64

when a new memory interferes with an older one

Question 65

who researched the effects of similarity on interference

Answer 65

mcgeoch and mcdonald

Question 66

outline mcgeoch and mcdonald's procedure

Answer 66

participant learnt 10 words until they could recall then with 100% accuracy they were split into six groups and given a second list to remember: synonyms, antonyms, unrelated, consonant syllables, 3 digit numbers and no new list

Question 67

outline mcgeoch and mcdonald's findings

Answer 67

recall of first list depended on the second most similar material had the worst recall

Question 68

outline the conclusion made from mcgeoch and mcdonald's stufy

Answer 68

interference is greatest when memories are the most similar

Question 69

ao3: outline baddeley and hitch's research

Answer 69

asked rugby players to recall teams they had played in the season, number of matches played varied players who played the most games had the worst recall

Question 70

who developed the working memory model

Answer 70

baddeley and hitch

Question 71

name the components of the working memory model

Answer 71

central executive phonological loop visuo-spatial sketchpad episodic buffer

Question 72

name the subdivisions of the phonological loop

Answer 72

phonological store articulatory process

Question 73

name the subdivisions of the visa-spatial sketchpad

Answer 73

visual cache inner scribe

Question 74

what is the function of the central executive

Answer 74

monitors incoming data focuses and divides our limited attention allocates slaves systems to tasks

Question 75

what is the function of the phonological loop

Answer 75

processes auditory information

Question 76

what is the function of the phonological store

Answer 76

stores the words you hear

Question 77

what is the function of the articulatory process

Answer 77

repeats sounds whilst needed (maintenance rehearsal)

Question 78

what is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 78

processes visual and spacial information

Question 79

what is the function of the visual cache

Answer 79

stores visual data

Question 80

what is the function of the inner scribe

Answer 80

records arrangement of objects in the visual field

Question 81

what is the function of the episodic buffer

Answer 81

integrates information and maintains time sequencing

Question 82

what is dual task performance

Answer 82

explains why we find it easy to do two tasks at once, but only if the tasks use different components

Question 83

why is it difficult to do two tasks which use the same component at once

Answer 83

limited capacity

Question 84

ao3: how does kf support the working memory model

Answer 84

had poor stm ability for auditory information but normal ability for visual information, shows his phonological loop was damaged but his visuo spatial sketchpad was intact

Question 85

ao3: outline baddeleys supporting research for dual task performance

Answer 85

when visual and verbal task carried out, performance was the same as separate when both tasks visual performance declined substantially

Question 86

ao3: how does evr present problems with the wmm

Answer 86

performed well on tests requiring reasoning, which suggested that his ce was intact. however, he had poor decision-making skills, which suggests that there are several component