4.2.3 - Research Methods Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
Define observation?
A
Psychologists watch and listen to participants’ observable behaviour (the DV)
2
Q
Define naturalistic observations?
A
Watching + recording behaviour in setting it would usually occur
3
Q
2 benefits of naturalistic observations?
A
- High external validity
- High generalisability
(Due to behaviour in normal setting)
4
Q
2 problems with naturalistic observations?
A
- Lower internal validity
- Low repeatability
(Due to no control of EVs/CVs)
5
Q
Example of naturalistic observations?
A
Observing childrens’ behaviour in a school
6
Q
Define controlled observations?
A
Watching + recording behaviour in a structured environment with some variable control
7
Q
2 positives of controlled observations?
A
- High internal validity
- High repeatability
(Due to control of EVs and CVs)
8
Q
Example of controlled observations?
A
Lab experiments using observation to measure DV
9
Q
Define covert observations?
A
Participants’ behaviour watched + recorded WITHOUT their knowledge/ consent
10
Q
1 positive and 1 negative of covert observations?
A
P = less participant reactivity to demand characteristics N = unethical (no informed consent or privacy)
11
Q
Define overt observations?
A
Participants’ behaviour watched + recorded WITH their knowledge + consent
12
Q
1 positive and 1 negative of overt observations?
A
P = ethical N = more demand characteristics causing participant reactivity
13
Q
Example of covert observations?
A
2 way mirror
14
Q
Example of overt observations?
A
Lab experiment using consent form
15
Q
Define participant observation?
A
Researcher becomes member of group he/ she is observing
16
Q
Example of participant observation?
A
Zimbardo in SPE (acted as lead researcher + prison superintendent)
17
Q
1 positive and 1 negative of participant observation?
A
P = High validity (due to increased insight) N = Researcher can lose objectivity (go native)
18
Q
What is ‘going native’?
A
Researcher in participant observation blurs line between researcher and participant role
19
Q
Define non-participant observation?
A
Researcher remains outside group he/ she is observing
20
Q
Example of non-participant observation?
A
Female researcher can’t join the group of Yr 10 boy participants, so observes from outside perspective
21
Q
1 positive and 1 negative of non-participant observation?
A
P = Researcher remains objective N = Loss of valuable inside insight
22
Q
Title and date of Rosenhan’s study?
A
- ‘On being sane in insane places’
- 1973
23
Q
What type of observation was Rosenhan’s study?
A
- Naturalistic
- Covert
- Participant
24
Q
Briefly outline events of Rosenhan’s study
A
- 8 pseudo-patients presented themselves at diff US psych institutions hearing ‘voices’
- All but one diagnosed with schizophrenia in remission
- Once inside stopped claiming symptoms + started observing
- Staff began classifying normal behaviour as symptomatic
25
What did Rosenhan’s study show?
The influence of environment on mental diagnosis (can cause misdiagnosis)
26
What is qualitative data?
Data that is expressed in words
27
What is quantitative data?
Data that is expressed numerically
28
Give 3 examples of qualitative data
- Transcript from interview
- Notes from counselling session
- Notes from observational study
29
Give 2 positives of qualitative data
- Greater detail
| - Greater external validity (data explained, so can be related to real life)
30
Give 2 negatives of qualitative data
- Hard to analyse and compare data
| - Conclusions are subjective (open to researcher bias)
31
Give 1 example of quantitative data
Individual scores from participants (e.g. number of words recalled)
32
Give 2 positives of quantitative data
- Easy to compare
| - Conclusions are objective (less researcher bias)
33
Give 2 negatives of quantitative data
- Less detail
| - Lower external validity (less meaning given to data)
34
How do you decide whether to use qualitative/ quantitative data?
- Neither better
- Depends on research (how the DV is measured)
- Can use combination
35
Define primary data
Data that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purpose of the research project
36
Define secondary data
Data that has been collected by someone else and pre-dates the current research project (‘desk research’)
37
Give example of primary data
Data gathered from experiment (e.g. questionnaire, observation)
38
Give example of secondary data
Government data - census
39
When is secondary data used
When appropriate data already exists
40
Give positive of primary data
Specifically addresses the purpose of the research
41
Give negative of primary data
Obtaining data takes time + money
42
Give 2 positives of secondary data
- Cheap + easy to access
| - Already had statistical testing (know significance)
43
Give negative of secondary data
Doesn’t necessarily address purpose of research
44
Define meta-analysis
Combining results from a number of studies (Secondary data) to gain an overall view on a topic
45
How can meta-analysis use qualitative approach?
Findings discussed
46
How can meta-analysis use quantitative approach?
Perform statistical analysis, including calculating effect size
47
Define effect size
The strength of the relationship between variables (IV and DV)
48
Give a positive of meta-analysis
Allows generalisation
49
Give a negative of meta-analysis
Prone to publication bias (file drawer problem) where researcher only includes relevant data to fit aim in way they like
50
What does observational design focus on?
HOW observations are made
51
What are observational techniques?
TYPE of observation used
52
Define a structured observation
Investigator only records specific behaviours (clearly defined in behavioural categories) using a sampling method
53
When are structured observations used?
When investigation is BIG - can’t record everything
54
Name 1 positive and 1 negative of a structured observation
```
P = Likely to produce quantitative data (easy to compare)
N = Can limit depth of data
```
55
Define an unstructured observation
Investigator records all target behaviours (usually via continuous recording)
56
When is an unstructured observation used?
When investigation is SMALL - can easily observe all participants
57
Name 1 positive and 2 negatives of an unstructured observation
```
P = More in depth data
N = Likely to produce qualitative data - harder to compare
N = May be observer bias - only record what catches eye
```
58
Define behavioural categories
When a target behaviour (what the researcher is looking for) is broken down into observable, measurable components
59
What should all behavioural categories be?
Clear and objective - to reduce possible bias
60
Give an example of a two behavioural categories for aggression
- Shaking fists
| - Shouting
61
Name 3 sampling methods for observations (when to get record observations)
- Continuous recording
- Event sampling
- Time sampling
62
Define continuous recording
All instances of target behaviour continuously recorded
63
What type of observation is continuous recording used for?
```
Unstructured observations
(Can become complicated when there are too many complex behaviours)
```
64
Define event sampling
Recording number of times an event (behavioural category) occurs in targeted group/ individual
65
Name 1 positive and 1 negative of event sampling
```
P = Good when behaviour is infrequent (So could be missed in time sampling)
N = If event is complex, may overlook details
```
66
When are event and time sampling used?
Structured observations
67
Define time sampling
Recording target behaviour occurring at a pre-established time frame (e.g. every 30 secs)
68
Give 1 positive and 1 negative of time sampling
```
P = Reduces number of observations to record (manageable)
N = May be unrepresentative of whole period
```
69
Define inter-observer reliability
Extent to which there is agreement between 2 or more observers involved in observation of an experiment
70
Why should there be more than one observer?
1 observer could lead to bias
71
List 4 steps to produce inter-observer reliability
1. Familiarise themselves with behavioural categories
2. Observe at same time
3. Compare + discuss data interpretations
4. Analyse data (calculate I-O R)
72
What is the calculation for inter-observer reliability?
Total no. Agreements / Total no. Observations
| Score above 0.8 is good reliability
73
Define self report techniques
Any method in which person is asked to state/ explain their own feelings/ behaviours related to a topic
74
What are the two main types of self report techniques?
- Questionnaires
| - Interviews
75
Define questionnaire
Pre-set list of written questions (‘items’) to which a person responds
76
Give 5 positives of questionnaires
- Lots of data quickly gained
- Cost-effective
- Can be done without researcher present
- Usually easy to analyse
- May be more willing to open up (less social desirability bias than interviews)
77
Give 2 negatives of questionnaires
- Responses may not be honest (social desirability bias)
| - Response bias/ acquiescence bias
78
Define social desirability bias
Tendency for participants to respond in a way that presents the, positively (big issue with interviews)
79
Define response bias
Tendency for participants to respond in same way to all questions, regardless of context
80
Define acquiescence bias
Response bias where participants always agree (yes-saying)
81
How was acquiescence bias investigated?
- By Jackson + Messick
- 1961
- Reversed questionnaire and found strong positive correlation between 2 sets of results
82
Define open questions
Respondents provide their own data expressed in words
| Tend to produce qualitative data
83
Give 1 positive and 1 negative of open questions
```
P = Not restricted responses (more valid)
N = Hard to analyse
```
84
Define closed questions
Respondents have limited answer choices
| Tend to produce quantitative data, but can be qualitative
85
Give 1 positive and 1 negative of closed questions
```
P = Easier to analyse
N = Restricted responses may be unrepresentative
```
86
Define interviews
‘Live’ encounter between interviewer and interviewee
87
What are the 3 types of interview
Structured, semi-structured, unstructured
88
Define structured interview and give 1 positive and 1 negative
Pre-determined list of questions asked in fixed order
P = Standardisation reduces interviewer difference + makes it repeatable
N = Can’t elaborate (frustrating)
89
Define semi- structured interview
Mix. Pre-determined questions but can ask follow up questions
90
Define unstructured interview and give 1 positive and 1 negative
No set questions. General topic set but interaction is free-flowing
P = Greater flexibility - provides better insight
N = Lacks standardisation - interviewer bias and hard to replicate
91
What is an issue with all interviews?
Social desirability bias
92
What are the 3 types of closed questions on a questionnaire?
- Likert scale
- Rating scale
- Fixed option choice
93
Define likert scale
Respondents indicate the extent to which they agree/ disagree using a scale of 1 to 5 points, each of which are labelled with a statement, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree
94
Define rating scale
Respondents identify a value that represents their strength of feeling towards a topic, using an unlabelled scale of 1 to 5
95
Define fixed option choice
Respondents given a list of possible answer options and must indicate which apply to them
96
Define interview schedule
List of questions interviewer intends to cover (must be standardised to reduce bias)
97
List 5 typical interview conditions
- One to one
- Quiet room (open up more)
- Interviewer takes notes/records
- Begin with neutral questions (establish rapport)
- Remind ppt. Answers are treated with confidence
98
Define rapport
Warm, relaxed relationship of mutual understanding and acceptance
99
What must be maintained when writing questions for questionnaires/interviews?
Clarity and neutrality
100
How must clarity be maintained when writing questions?
- Don’t overuse jargon (tech. Terms)
- Don’t use double-barrelled questions
- Don’t use double negatives
101
How must neutrality be maintained when writing questions?
- Don’t use emotive language
| - Don’t use leading questions
102
Define correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates the strength and direction of an association between 2 co-variables
103
What are correlations plotted on?
Scatterdiagram
104
Define co-variables
Variables investigated within a correlation (investigating association between them, not cause and effect)
105
What are the three types of correlation?
- Positive
- Negative
- Zero
106
Define positive correlation
Co-variables rise or fall together
107
Define negative correlation
As one co-variable rises, the other falls
108
Define zero correlation
No relationship between two co-variables
109
Why do correlations not mean there is a casual relationship between the co-variables?
- No manipulation of variables (in experiments IV manipulated/ controlled + effects on DV measured)
- Lack of manipulation means cannot establish a cause and effect
- Influence of EVs not controlled, so relationship may be caused by third, ‘intervening variable’
110
Define intervening variable
Variable that can be used to explain relationship between two co-variables
111
Give example of intervening variable
Heat in the positive relationship between ice-cream sales and death
112
Give 2 positives of using correlations
- Acts as good preliminary tool for experiments (strong association between two co-variables may provide hypothesis)
- Cheap and quick (no controlled environment or manipulation of variables - can often use secondary data)
113
Give 2 negatives of correlations
- Third variable problem (relationship may be due to another variable)
- No cause + effect (can’t determine direction of relationship)
