Monarchy and Government, 1509-88 Flashcards
studying for history
What did the 1536 Act of Succession entail?
Passed after Anne’s execution, it declared Elizabeth illegitimate, replacing her in the line of succession with the as of yet unborn heirs of Henry and Jane Seymour.
Until 1572, William Cecil was secretary of state. How did this aid him?
It meant that he had great influence because it gave him access to Elizabeth and her correspondence.
When did Henry VIII marry Anne Boleyn?
In 1533, while she was already pregnant by him. The hope was that she would bear a son.
How did Mary I’s stubbornness lead to problems during her reign?
She was determined to restore the English Church to full Catholicism. Politically this was not an astute move because she failed to realise the complexity of the situation in England after 20 years of reformation. This same stubbornness made her think marrying Philip II was the solution to her problems; this lead to open rebellion in 1554.
What did Cromwell’s power, influence and religious convictions paired with his reliance on Henry mean?
He had enemies at court, and his positions relied on the support of an increasingly volatile.
Why was it so important that Henry fathered a son before he died?
He was the son of a usurper and needed to consolidate the dynasty. Without a son, speculations would arise as to who would be king after he died. These speculations could lead to political instability and plots focused on rival claimants; this had happened a lot in the reign of Henry VII.
How was parliament used in Henry VIII’s reign to dissolve the monasteries?
The smaller monasteries were dissolved by an Act of Parliament in 1536 and a second Act in 1539 dissolved the larger monasteries as well.
As legal methods didn’t raise enough to fund Henry’s wars, Wolsey was forced to resort to less legal methods, in particular the Amicable Grant of 1525. What was this?
In effect, a forced loan from his taxpayers.
Why, despite her brother writing her out of the succession, did Mary Tudor gain popular support in 1553?
Because under the laws of the kingdom, and by her father Henry VIII’s will, she was the next in line to the throne.
An example of the fact that Mary I’s parliaments were less easy to control was the opposition to two proposed bills in 1555. The second bill, known as the ‘Exiles bill’, proposed that the lands and property of Englishmen who had gone into exile and refused to return could be seized. How was this defeated?
It was defeated in a very unusual incident in which Sir Anthony Kingston, MP for Gloucestershire, locked the doors of the HOuse and forced the Speaker to put the bill to a vote before its supporters could arrive.
What was required in Tudor times to vote in a county, and what did these requirements mean?
It was necessary to own property that brought in an income of at least 40 shillings per year. This meant that voting was restricted to those wealthy enough to own property outright when it happened.
The relationship between Henry VIII and his two chief ministers was dictated by Henry’s personality and style of rule. The working relationship between William Cecil (Lord Burghley) and Elizabeth I was also conditioned to her personality and style. What was the difference, then, between Wolsey/Cromwell and Cecil?
Cecil was able to sustain his position from 1558 until his peaceful death in 1598. He was from a higher social class- a member of the gentry who had spent his entire career in Royal service.
How old was Edward VI when he came to the throne?
9
How did being created Lord Burghley in 1571 aid Cecil politically?
He was then able to sit in the House of Lords, from where he could influence events in the Commons.
Though Elizabeth I was not prepared to marry, why did she act as if she was interested in doing so?
Because the prospect of marriage was useful as a tool in diplomatic negotiations.
Describe the Acts passed by Parliament to dictate religious belief 1536-44.
The Act of Ten Articles (1536) promoted a more ‘reformed’ version of faith. The Act of Six Articles (1539) reflected Henry’s aversion to a more conservative doctrine.
As religious changes took effect in the 1530s, how did propaganda spread the beliefs adopted by the monarch? Give an example.
With public displays, such as a staged battle on the Thames during Henry VIII’s reign between two barges representing the king and the pope. The actors playing the pope and his cardinals were ducked in the river.
What did the new powers gained by the Act of Supremacy mean for the monarchs in terms of parliament? Give an example.
It meant that monarchs were forced to call parliament more frequently; between 1526-36 there were sessions nearly every year.
Like her siblings before her, Elizabeth I was forced by precedent to reverse the changes undertaken by Mary and to restore the Royal Supremacy. Why did she face opposition in 1559 regarding this, and what was the result of said opposition?
This was mainly due to religiously conservative peers and bishops in the House of Lords, and may have led to more of a compromise than she had originally intended.
Influenced by the dominant reformer faction, what did Henry change about his will in December 1546?
He changed it to make provisions for a regency council of 16 men who would rule on behalf of his son. In making this decision, Henry clearly wanted to avoid naming one protector to rule the country.
What did the fact that both Wolsey and Cromwell rose from humble beginnings mean?
That they were both reliant on Henry VIII for their promotion and for their power, especially because they lacked the traditional landed estates, wealth and rank that other servants of the Crown possessed.
What was the result of Wolsey’s national enquiry into the practice of illegal enclosure by landlords 1517-18?
On the basis of this enquiry, 264 landlords were prosecuted and 188 verdicts were reached
In his role as Lord Chancellor, Wolsey attempted to improve the administration of justice. How did he do this?
By prosecuting in Star Chamber local officials who were accused of corruption
How did the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth reinforce the idea that God had granted Henry the Royal supremacy, but the people had given Henry VIII the authority to assume the supremacy through parliament?
Mary had to repeal the supremacy through parliament, and Elizabeth reasserted it again through another Act of Parliament.
What were the four main results of the Reformation parliament meeting more than past parliaments?
The Commons in particular became particularly confident. Groups with particular agendas, such as the Puritans under Elizabeth, began to used parliament as a means of achieving their aims. More meetings meant that local MPs became more confident in expressing their views, and were less easily intimidated by the presence of their monarch. The later Tudor monarchs, especially Elizabeth, had to develop new tactics for managing parliament.
How did Henry VIII himself acknowledge the continuing uncertainty of the 1530s/40s?
In the third Act of Succession, he restored both Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the throne, though never reversed their illegitimacy.
Why, for Tudor Monarchs, did progresses through the country increase visibility? Which monarch in particular used this method?
Because they were an opportunity for the monarchs to show themselves and be seen by their people. Elizabeth I, in particular, used this method and went on progresses with her entire court nearly every summer, staying in the houses of leading nobility and local gentry to save money.
How many times did Parliament meet under Henry VIII from 1509-1529, and what was its role in this period?
It met four times and, generally, its role was mainly to grant taxation to fund the king’s wars.
What was the Council?
The Council was a more formal body that had existed since medieval times to advise the monarch. The monarch chose who was on the Council and did not have to take their advice, though it was often in the king’s or queen’s best interests to at least listen to the Council’s views.
What were the two main reasons for Cromwell’s fall from power in 1540?
He arranged Henry’s fourth marriage to a woman he disliked on sight and only married reluctantly, and he was accused of protecting heretical Protestants.
Crucially to his success, Elizabeth supported Cecil rather than his critics. How did she reward him?
She rewarded him with the title of Lord Burghley in 1571, and in return for his unwavering loyalty to her she allowed him to build up a network of supporters through patronage.
How much did the ‘Fifteenths and Tenths’ raise for the costs of war?
£117,936
Why did it initially not look likely that Mary would be able to claim the throne?
Because Northumberland had control of London, the central offices of government and the navy.
The Tudor legal system was comprised of a series of national and local courts of law where most cases were heard. However, there were also ‘special’ courts of equity. What were these used for?
Trying cases where there was no legal precedent or where circumstances surrounding the case made it difficult to get a fair hearing in one of the main courts. They had the advantage of being much more flexible than common law courts. Examples of these equitable courts included the court of Star Chamber, Chancery (run by the Lord Chancellor) and the king’s Council.
How did Cromwell fall after his error with Anne of Cleves?
Henry was angry enough that, when Cromwell’s enemies among the conservative faction of court took the opportunity to accuse Cromwell of treason and heresy, the King listened to them. Cromwell was tried and executed because his policies no longer suited Henry.
Why was the Duke of Buckingham actually executed?
Because he appeared to be plotting treason and raising a private army. It was even the king that wrote to Wolsey telling him to “make good watch” on the Duke.
Henry VIII came to the throne aged 17. Why was this unexpected?
Because, until 1502, he had been brought up as a second son who was not expected to become king. This changed when his elder brother, Arthur, died.
How much did Wolsey’s 1513 subsidy raise for war funds between 1513-23?
£322,099
By 1516, what had Cromwell achieved?
He was working for Wolsey.
In 1519, Wolsey prosecuted a prominent member of the Cheshire gentry, Sir John Savage, on suspicion that he had been using his local influence to protect his son from murder charges. What was his aim by doing so?
To teach Savage the ‘new law of Star Chamber’. He was pardoned, but fined 4000 marks to the crown and lost several of his local offices.
Although there was no suggestion that Edward VI shouldn’t inherit the throne, what did the changes to Henry’s will show?
That the political situation could be manipulated when there was a minor on the throne rather than an adult capable of running the country themselves.
Generally, what did Wolsey use the Star Chamber and the court of Chancery for?
To encourage ordinary men to seek justice for their grievances, which led to a huge increase in the workload of these courts.
The Courts of Augmentations, First Fruits and Tenths, and General Surveyors were set up for the same purpose. What was this?
To deal with the estates and incomes acquired by the Crown as a result of the break with Rome and the dissolution of the monasteries.
When did Henry VIII marry his brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon?
As soon as he inherited the throne in 1509.
In the 1530s, Cromwell tried to solve Henry VIII’s financial problems by acquiring former monastery lands for the crown. This temporarily raised Crown income to a peak of £126,296 in 1541. Why did this not last?
Because by the end of Henry’s reign two thirds of these lands had been sold off.
How did the competing factions in Henry VIII’s court attempt to influence him?
By placing their supporters in positions where they could influence him, often in the Privy Chamber or Council.
What did the Council do asides from advise the monarch?
They also helped the monarch with the day-to-day running of the country and could act as a judicial court.
When was the Mortuaries Act?
1529
What was the dry stamp?
The dry stamp was a stamp with a raised impression of King Henry VIII’s signature. This could be used to make an imprint of his signature on legal documents, which could then be inked in.
By 1546, in whose favour had the balance of power between the rival factions in Henry VIII’s court swung?
In favour of the reformer faction, lead by the Earl of Hertford.
Why did the Commons claim the privilege of freedom of speech within parliament?
Because they feared that without the guarantee that they would be able to speak freely while debating, they could face arrest and imprisonment.
The Crown had two main sources of income: ordinary and extraordinary revenue. What was ordinary revenue?
Revenue which came from the royal lands and the monarch’s status as a landlord.
Why didn’t the Duke of Northumberland want Mary to become Queen?
Because she was likely to reverse the religious changes that had occurred, and he would be, at best, removed from power.
What did the 1544 Act of Succession entail?
It named Edward as Henry’s heir, but also restored Mary and Elizabeth to the royal succession, though not explicitly making them legitimate. It also made provisions for a regency council should Henry die while Edward was still a minor. Under the terms of the Act, the council was to be nominated by Henry in his Will.
Why did Elizabeth I learn the harsh realities of politics at an early age?
She was caught up in the plans of Thomas Seymour to marry her without the king’s consent. This was treason and so he was executed.
Who lead the conservative faction in court, who favoured a return to traditional Catholic forms of worship, during the later part of Henry VIII’s reign?
The Duke of Norfolk, his son the Earl of Surrey, and the bishop of Winchester, Stephen Gardiner,
Why did the Council become less important politically under Edward VI?
Because government and politics were dominated by the king’s protectors who used control of the privy chamber to achieve this.
Why weren’t the precedents for a situation in which a minor succeeded the throne promising?
The last time it happened, in 1483 with Edward V, the young king had been usurped by his uncle -Richard III- and not seen after that.
What did ‘king-in-parliament’ have authority over that the king alone did not?
The Church.
In January 1547, as Henry VIII lay dying, a series of political maneuverings took place through which Hertford was able to enhance his control over the boy king. How was this done via Henry’s will?
The will was changed to give the regency council ‘full power and authority’ to make any decisions necessary to the government of the realm, and to add the ‘unfilled gifts’ clause that allowed the council to make gifts after Henry’s death which he had ‘granted, made… or promised’.
The Crown had two main sources of income: ordinary and extraordinary revenue. What was extraordinary revenue?
Usually this was taxation granted by parliament for the monarch’s special needs, most often the cost of war.
What was the Exchequer?
The institution responsible for collecting the Crown’s income. It was medieval in origin and by the Tudor period it had become increasingly slow, but reforms under Edward and Mary meant that it became more efficient.
What did Wolsey do to protect his position with Henry?
In 1519, he expelled the ‘minions’ (young gentlemen friendly with Henry) from the household who had too much influence with the king. The Eltham Ordinances in 1526 can also be seen as an attempt to control the Chamber as a rival source of Power.
Of Cromwell’s four specialised financial courts, only one lasted beyond the Tudor period. What was this, and what happened to the others?
Only the Court of Wards and Liveries survived; the other three were all amalgamated into the Exchequer under Edward VI and Mary I
What were the problems that Elizabeth I faced from her parliament mostly because of?
An increasingly confident Commons.
What was Cromwell’s ‘humble beginning’?
HIs background is shadowy, but he was born in London c1485 and was the son of a cloth maker.
Why were there concerns when Mary expressed her desire to marry Philip?
Attitudes regarding women led to the assumption that if she married a foreigner, he would rule England and may even take Mary abroad.
How did the council change during the Tudor period?
It became increasingly formal and ‘professional’.
Why were the Acts of Succession significant?
Because they were representative of Parliament’s growing importance; this was the first time they had been used in this way to give legal standing to the royal succession. It also shows the political confusion created by Henry’s marriages.
What were the consequences of the Reformation parliament for the monarchs following Henry VIII?
After parliament had been used to create Royal supremacy and the break with Rome the subsequent monarchs were forced to return to the parliament whenever they wanted to alter the religious and political settlement enforced in the 1530s
Popular fears about Mary I’s Spanish marriage were partly responsible for Wyatt’ s rebellion in 1554. Why was this just because she was a woman?
Because, while marriage to a foreigner may lead to discontent, there would be no fear of a queen consort taking over power as there was with Philip as a king consort.
Which position did Cecil gain in 1572, and how long did he have this for?
He became Lord Treasurer, a post he retained to his death
What were Mary I’s councillors particularly involved in advising her over?
Her marriage and the return to Catholicism, although they did not always agree on these issues.
How did Henry VIII determine that his next marriage after Anne Boleyn could not be challenged?
Catherine of Aragon having died in 1536, he annulled his marriage to Anne and had her executed on the charge of adultery.
Why was it common for factions to form in the later part of Henry VIII’s reign?
Because Tudor monarchs had personal control over the government, so one route to power and influence was by gaining personal access to the monarch.
Why did Wolsey reverse his policy on enclosure in 1523?
He had managed to upset the landed nobility and gentry, and reversed his policy as part of a deal with parliament, which tended to represent the interests of the landed elites.
Cecil remained dominant in government from the 1560s onwards. What did he do with this power?
A committed Protestant, in the 1570s and 1580s he was one of the chief architects of attempts to tighten controls on English Catholics, despite Elizabeth’s reluctance to follow this policy.
What were ‘matters of state’ in parliament?
Things such as Elizabeth’s marriage, the succession and religious policy.
Women in the 16th century were not thought fit to rule. Who was the only precedent for a female ruler, and why did they not set a good example of female ability to rule?
The 12th century Queen Matilda, whose reign led to a vicious civil war.
Like Elizabeth herself, Cecil was a politique. How did his approach to politics help to form the basis of their professional relationship?
They both recognised the need for stability and compromise.
What happened to Elizabeth I during Mary I’s reign?
In 1554, she was arrested and sent to the Tower as it was suspected that she had played a part in encouraging rebellion against Mary. She was questioned but would admit to nothing and was eventually released to live under house arrest.
An example of the fact that Mary I’s parliaments were less easy to control was the opposition to two proposed bills in 1555. The first bill proposed that payments made to the Church known as ‘First Fruits and Tenths’, which Henry VIII had seized, should be returned to the Church. How was this passed despite opposition?
It was only passed by the queen’s supporters keeping the House sitting until 3pm, which was unusually late for parliamentary business. By this time, the bill’s opponents seemed to have left for lunch.
What did the fact that Elizabeth allowed Cecil to build up a network of supporters through patronage mean for him?
It meant that he never became politically isolated and was not completely dependent on the queen’s whims for political survival as Wolsey and Cromwell had been. He was never more powerful than her, however.
Cromwell was named vicegerent in spirituals by Henry VIII in 1534. What did this give him the power to do, and how did he use said power?
Though he was not a churchman, it gave him the power to shape the religion of the country. He used propaganda and a preaching campaign in churches to introduce reformer ideas more widely across England. He was also the architect of the dissolution of the monasteries in the period 1536-39.
What was the subject of Wolsey’s national enquiry 1517-18?
It was to investigate the practice of illegal enclosure by landlords
In 1569, there was a court based plot to remove Cecil from power. Who was included in this plot?
Those of the nobility with catholic sympathies, such as the Duke of Norfolk, as well as the Protestant Earl of Leicester, who also distrusted Cecil’s power.
When was the Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates?
1532
How did historian Jennifer Loach counter Neale’s arguments about Protestant opposition?
She showed that both of the 1555 parliamentary incidents were the result of fears surrounding property rights, something that would have particularly concerned the representatives of the land-owning elites in parliament. For ‘the First Fruits and Tenths’, the level of taxation may have to be raised, which was never popular. For the ‘Exiles bill’, although many of those who’d gone abroad in Mary’s reign had Protestant learnings and wanted to avoid persecution, the Commons was more concerned about protecting property rights in general.
How did Mary’s interaction with the Council follow the trend seen in Henry’s reign?
Although she had 50 named councillors, only 19 of these were ‘working’ councillors who were meeting three or four times a week.
In the 16th century, monarchs were still in control of the government and the monarchy passed by the rule of primogeniture from father to son. Give an example of the power that the monarch possessed.
They could choose whether to go to war or to make peace and could also summon and dismiss parliament at will.
Why was there extra pressure on Elizabeth I to marry and produce an heir?
Because she was the last of the Tudor dynasty; it would end with her unless she produced an heir.
What is an example of the fact that Wolsey’s grand schemes were too ambitious?
Although he encouraged cases to be brought into the Star Chamber, this led to a backlog that Wolsey, distracted by war and diplomacy, failed to clear.
Wolsey was a clever administrator and rapidly rose further than a member of the king’s council. How did he do this?
By co-ordinating the war effort against France in 1512-14.
What did the 1534 Act of Succession entail?
The 1534 Act of Succession reinforced the judgement of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury that Henry’s marriage to Catherine was invalid and that Mary was therefore illegitimate.
Which of the Duke of Buckingham’s actions alarmed Henry VIII and ultimately led to the Duke’s death
In 1521, he requested a licence to visit his lands in Wales with 400 armed men. This alarmed Henry because his actions seemed to threaten potential rebellion. Shortly afterwards, Stafford
What were the Eltham Ordinances?
A series of reforms introduced by Wolsey in 1526. They included plans for the council and household, as well as a reduction of the number of men serving in the privy chamber. Wolsey claimed that these reforms were an attempt to improve royal finances, but they were really an excuse for him to purge the chamber of those he saw as enemies.
How did Cromwell get an education?
He left England in his teens and served as a soldier in the French army. He learned about accountancy and the law, though had no formal training as a lawyer.
Historian Sir John Neale argued for the existence of a ‘Puritan choir’ in Elizabeth’s parliament. What was this?
The ‘choir’, Neale argued, was a small group of religiously radical Protestants who had returned from exile under Mary and were determined to use Parliament to create a more extreme religious settlement than Elizabeth wanted.
What was Wolsey’s ‘humble beginning’?
He was the son of an Ipswich butcher.
What did historian Sir John Neale use the opposition to the proposed bills of 1555 to argue for?
A growth in organised Protestant opposition led by independent MPs in the Commons, which would become more apparent in Elizabeth’s reign.
How did Mary I’s health affect her ability to rule effectively?
She suffered from anxiety and depression and her desire to bear a son and heir led to phantom pregnancies which kept her closeted in her chambers.
Wolsey was a clever administrator and rapidly rose further than a member of the king’s council by co-ordinating the war effort against France in 1512-14. Which position did he then gain in 1514?
In 1514, he was made archbishop of York.
Wolsey was a clever administrator and rapidly rose further than a member of the king’s council by co-ordinating the war effort against France in 1512-14. Which positions did he then gain in 1515?
In 1515, the pope made Wolsey a cardinal, and in the same year he became Lord chancellor of England, meaning that he was in charge of the judicial system.
Why does Sir John Neale’s argument for the existence of a ‘Puritan choir’ not fit the available evidence?
Because, as historian Norman Jones has shown, there were at most 25 Puritan MPs, only four of which had returned in time for th 1559 parliament.
Wolsey was a clever administrator and rapidly rose further than a member of the king’s council by co-ordinating the war effort against France in 1512-14. Which position did he then gain in 1518?
He received the title from the pope of ‘legate a latere’, making him a papal legate.
How was Henry VIII influenced by Renaissance ideas of ‘honour’?
He wanted to defend English rights abroad. A Renaissance prince was supposed to be an accomplished fighter, which appealed to Henry who also enjoyed military sports such as jousting.
Why did the Duke of Northumberland want Lady Jane Gray to be Queen, asides from how neither Mary or Elizabeth were likely to support him?
He didn’t want Mary to reverse the religious changes that England had undergone, and was also Lady Jane Grey’s father in law, his son Sir Guildford Dudley having married her.
Why was Wolsey, son of an Ipswich butcher, clearly smart?
Because he was sent to Magdalen College, Oxford and then embarked on a career in the Church.
Overall, what was Elizabeth’s relationship with parliament?
Despite some areas of dispute, Elizabeth and parliament were on the same side. Her attempts to restrict their freedom of speech were as much to do with her views on her royal prerogative as an attempt to reduce parliament’s powers, and parliamentary pressure of Elizabeth was often due to the Council having used parliament to force her into making a decision.
What was Cromwell’s end?
Arrested on 10 June 1540, he was executed on 28 July for treason.
In Elizabeth’s reign, parliament was becoming more assertive in some areas of policy. Give an example of this.
In 1563 and 1566, the Commons raised the issue of marriage and the succession with the queen, which would have been unimaginable during Henry VIII’s reign,
Why, to be successful, could a monarch not ignore the traditions and customs of England or the laws made by Parliament?
Because monarchs who tried to rule entirely as they pleased risked being usurped and being labelled tyrants. This had happened to Richard II in 1399. It was expected that, while a monarch would be able to choose their own friends and counsellors, they would also listen to their advice though not necessarily act on it.
How did Wolsey use the profits of his office to live in a grand style?
HIs household numbered 500 men, nearly as big as the king’s, and his building at Hampton Court was so magnificent that contemporaries called him an ‘alter rex’- another king.
What happened to Wolsey from 1525 onwards?
From 1525, his relationship with Henry began to deteriorate, especially once he was unable to secure the annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine. By 1529, he had outlived his usefulness to the king; accused of praemunire, he was stripped of his possessions and banished from court. A year later, on his way to trial, Wolsey died.
Which common method for advancing from the lower ranks in society did Wolsey, son of an Ipswich butcher, use?
Advancement through the church structure.
Why did the Duke Of Buckingham, Edward Stafford, have reason to plot against Henry VIII?
He was descended from Edward III and so had a claim to the throne?
How old was Mary I when she came to the throne?
37
In 1523, what significant thing happened to Cromwell?
He became an MP.
Tudor society was hierarchical in nature, with emphasis placed on the importance of obedience to the monarch as the pinnacle of society and God’s representative on earth. One common way in which this was expressed was in the ‘Great Chain of Being’. What did this depict?
All members of society having their place and being dependent on each other. This idea emphasised that God had created an ordered society and that obedience was owed to those higher up the social scale.
