Conditions in Early 16th Century Germany Flashcards
Abuses alone do not explain the level of anti-clericalism in Germany for several reasons. Why was the situation with abuses not uniformly bad?
About half the priests in southern Germany had a degree, which was an exceptionally high proportion, given the rarity of university places. Furthermore, some monastic orders had already reformed themselves, and some bishops were conscientious. The Bishop of Basle in Switzerland warned his clergy not to curl their hair, trade in the churches, get drunk, engage in horse trading, or to buy stolen property.
When did Charles become Duke of Burgundy?
After the sudden death of Philip the Fair, Charles became Duke of Burgundy at the age of six.
The two courts of appeal were the Imperial Chamber Court and the Imperial Aulic Court. What was the Imperial Chamber Court?
The Imperial Chamber Court, established in 1495, was based in Frankfurt. Although the emperor chose the chief justice and several deputies, the princes, via the circles, selected the 20 judges.
When was the Schmalkaldic League formed?
1531
Despite inflation and population growth, many sectors of the HRE’s economy were thriving in the early 16th century. Which industry was particularly successful?
The silver-mining industry located in Saxony, Bohemia and the Tyrol: output increased fivefold in the 70 years to 1530.
Though much of his work was serious, Erasmus was also a very witty writer. Give an example of this.
In satires like his ‘In Praise of Folly’ (1509) and the ‘Colloquies’ (1518), he poked fun at clerical abuses and superstitious religious practices.
There is a view that anti-clericalism existed because the Church was riddled from top to bottom with a number of abuses. What was simony?
Simony was when positions in the Church were sold to the highest bidder rather than awarded to the best candidate.
Why is the diet of Worms known as such?
As the empire had no capital city, each diet was known after the town or city where it met. Charles V’s first diet met in the small town of Worms.
From 1475 onwards, what was different about the nature of indulgences?
Indulgences could be bought for a dead friend or relative whose soul was already in purgatory.
In the period 1500-1512, the empire was divided into ten ‘circles’, each consisting of a number of states and territories. What was the purpose of these circles?
Regional coordination; each circle had an assembly with representatives drawn from all the member states, and this assembly was then meant to enforce decisions taken by the diet, to collect taxes and to supervise coinage. They also had the function of raising troops, either for peaceful or defensive measures.
What was anti-clericalism?
Opposition to the clergy, on the basis of their ‘abuses’ and their power.
How did the church make poor people even poorer?
Through tithes and high rents on Church lands.
Why did the title of HRE hold remarkably little power?
Because there was no salary, imperial army, effective system of imperial taxation or any system of imperial coinage. He could only intervene in disputes when asked to, and had no right to directly intervene in the internal affairs of any of the states or cities in the empire.
What happened to Ulrich of Württemberg 1511-19?
He married Sabina, niece of Maximilian and daughter of the Duke of Bavaria, but the marriage was an unhappy one, leading him to fall in love with the wife of a knight called Hans von Hutten. Hans was the cousin of Ulrich von Hutten, a humanist. He killed Hans in 1515, and Sabina fled. Ulrich was declared an outlaw by MAximilian and the Swabian league drove him from Württemberg, which was sold to Charles V.
How did Erasmus in particular pioneer ‘ad fontes’?
He produced a new translation of the Greek New Testament in 1516, and where the Vulgate (Matthew 4:17) had used the phrase ‘do penance’, Erasmus suggested that a more accurate translation was ‘be penitent’, suggesting an inward path to salvation.
When did Luther write the 95 Theses?
1517
What were open monastic orders?
Orders such as the Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans were friars who worked within society, preaching and teaching in universities, or helping the poor and sick.
What did Erasmus want for the Church?
He wanted open debate and the papacy to lead a reform of the Church. To that end, he challenged ideas, institutions and practices. However, Erasmus did not want to cause a revolution, and he certainly did not want to split the church.
What about the Church annoyed employers?
The economic power of Church, and the increasingly large number (over 100 by 1500) of holy days and feast days during which work was forbidden.
What relation was Charles V to Catherine of Aragon?
He was her nephew, as his mother (Joanna of Castile) was Catherine’s sister. Catherine and Joanna’s parents were Ferdinand, King of Aragon, and Isabella, Queen of Castile (Hence Catherine of Aragon and Joanna of Castile).
What were the roles of the cardinals?
Advisers to the pope, and responsible for electing the pope from one of their number.
When was Loci Communes?
1521
When was the Siege of Vienna?
1529
Where did the power of the Church lie?
In the fact that it claimed to be the only route to eternal salvation. Obedience to the teachings of the Church was therefore crucial in order to minimise the time spent in purgatory and to be saved.
What was the result of simony and pluralism?
Often, unqualified bishops who saw the Church solely as a means to make money so that they could live like princes. Pluralists were often non-resident, and their indifference to their responsibilities could be shocking.
Luther unquestionably benefited from the fact that a ‘holy man’ was expected. Why was one expected at the same time Luther rose?
A Great Conjunction of the Stars was predicted to coincide in 1524 with a conjunction of all the planets in Pisces. This happens only once every 750 years, and was interpreted as heralding the Second Coming of Christ, and the end of the world.
What did Erasmus say on the subject of Pilgrimages?
“We kiss the shoes of saints and their dirty handkerchiefs, yet we leave their words, their most holy relics, neglected”
When was the Peace of Augsburg?
1555
Why would it be hard to underestimate the Church’s power in the empire in 1500?
It was the largest landowner, controlling about one-sixth of German land. Three of the seven electors were members of the Church, while more than half of the second college in the diet were ecclesiastical princes- prince bishops who acted as secular rulers.
Abuses alone do not explain the level of anti-clericalism in Germany for several reasons. Why was the level of abuses often exaggerated in anti-clerical literature?
Scandal meant better sales.
Who were the most important princes in the HRE?
The seven electors: the three senior archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, and four senior secular princes.
What did historian Owen Chadwick say in praise of Erasmus?
“More than any other single man, Erasmus lowered the European reputation of pope and clergyman, monk and friar, and above all, the theologian”
When Emperor Maximilian died in January 1519, his lack of organisation caused problems for his grandson, Charles. How so?
Characteristically, he had not pre-organised the election, so the 19-year-old Charles was therefore forced to compete for the title of HRE against King Francis I of France.
How did humanists create a climate in which Luther’s protest could thrive?
By attacking the papacy and denouncing the exploitation of Germany by Rome, they were partly responsible for the moods of anti-clericalism, anti-papalism, nationalism and xenophobia that existed in 16th century Germany.
The imperial diet could only meet when it was summoned by the emperor. Why, therefore, was it summoned reasonably frequently?
Because the emperor could only raise taxes or troops or address national concerns by going through the diet.
Were the sacraments a priority for most people?
No- most were far more concerned about this life than they were about the afterlife. For them, the seven sacraments were a low priority, of which four were once-in-a-lifetime events anyway. Since services were in Latin, as was the Bible, most did not even understand official doctrine.
What was an Apostolic Bull?
A papal order, so named after the bulla (wax seal) that was attached to the document.
Who was Conrad Celtis?
A German humanist, historian and poet, who was even made Poet Laureate in 1487 by the emperor. He focused his attention on a study of German history.
What was the practice known as ‘ad fontes’?
Going back to the oldest sources one could find in a search for accuracy.
How did the peasants react to unbelievable hardship coupled with deep resentment of exploitative landlords?
It meant that there was an increasingly explosive situation in the countryside. There were 18 significant peasant revolts between 1500-1525, compared to 21 revolts in the HUNDRED years beforehand!
What was penance?
In theory, there were four parts to penance: contrition, confession, satisfaction, absolution; feeling sorry, confessing, performing a work of satisfaction, being forgiven.
Why was the level of clerical abuses one theory as to why anti-clericalism was so prominent in the empire?
Given their importance in meeting people’s religious needs, whether in this life or the afterlife, one might have expected high standards of professionalism among the clergy. However, such standards were often missing.
Acceptance of papal authority was a central point of Catholic teaching. Yet by the early 16th century, attacks on the papacy were extremely popular. Any cartoon, book or pamphlet that mocked Rome and exposed decadence and scandal became a best-seller in Germany. What were the three main reasons for this anti-papalism?
The personal behaviour of the Renaissance popes, the condition of the Church in Rome, and a growing belief that these hypocritical ‘foreign’ popes and their scandal-ridden Roman-church were financially exploiting pious Germany.
There is a view that anti-clericalism existed because the Church was riddled from top to bottom with a number of abuses. What was pluralism?
Simony was holding more than one position in the Church.
What is the largest amount of Cardinals that Leo X created in a single day?
31
In practice, the only effective armed force in the HRE was the Swabian league, originally created in 1488 for securing law and order in the south west, but with 13,000 troops by 1519. how were these troops used?
Maximilian used its troops to crush expansionist attacks being made by Bavaria in 1504, and to evict Ulrich of Württemberg.
What was Eucharist/Communion?
Based on the Last Supper of Christ, the bread and wine were consecrated in the miracle of transubstantiation. The laity received only bread, and the priest ‘communion in both kinds’.
What was extreme unction (last rites)?
Those who wished to shorten their time in purgatory had to make a final confession and be anointed by a priest before they died.
When was Charles V born to Philip the Fair and Joanna of Castile?
1500
Why was the silver-mining industry particularly successful in the 16th century?
Until the discovery of New World silver deposits, Germany’s mining industry provided most of Europe’s bullion, which enabled German banking to develop to the point that it challenged that of even Italy.
What did Charles promise to do by signing the Capitulation of 1519?
To: respect the rights and privileges of the princes, consult the electors and the diet on all imperial matters, use only Latin or German when in the empire, not appoint foreigners to imperial positions, not bring any foreign troops into the empire and not declare war without the consent of the electors.
When was Luther’s New Testament published?
1522
Why did poor harvests impact peasants incredibly badly?
Because a poor harvest could mean hunger, and one in four harvests failed. A poor harvest also meant high food prices and inflation.
When was the Peasant’s revolt?
1524-25
What was a burgher?
A citizen of a town or city who was also a member of the trading or mercantile class.
Jakob Fugger, whom Leo X had contacted about raising funds for St Peter’s Basilica via indulgences, decided to link the sale with the needs of another client. Who was this?
Albert of Brandenburg, the brother of the Margrave of Brandenburg, who was one of the seven electors.
What were the roles of the archbishops?
In charge of a ‘province’- there were six archbishops in the empire, and the three most senior were electors.
Why was pope Leo X concerned about Charles becoming HRE?
If Charles added the empire to his Aragonese inheritance, he would dominate the Italian peninsula.
When did Charles inherit both Aragon (including its lands in Italy) and Castile (with its lands in the New World)?
In 1516, upon the death of Ferdinand of Aragon.
What was lack of respect for the Renaissance popes closely linked to?
Reports circulating Germany about the behaviour of the clergy in Rome, said to be leading lives of luxury and making a mockery of Christianity. Many of these reports were based on eyewitness accounts from pilgrims and scholars.
How did the Church determine even what people could eat?
On three days a week, and on the eve of every holy day, and during the 40 days of Lent, no meat could be eaten. In Lent, additional things such as butter were forbidden.
Give an example of how even a trivial matter regarding the Church’s economic power could cause resentment.
No butter could be eaten during Lent- this would be easy to follow in Rome, where olive oil was used to cook, but in Germany butter was the fat used to cook with, olive oil only available to import at a high cost. Of course, it was possible to buy a dispensation to eat butter- yet another irritating example of Church exploitation.
When was the sack of Rome?
1527
Anger at clerical abuses and the power and privileges of the church prior to 1517 added to the tension. What fuelled this?
Humanist literature, deep piety and a belief that the world was about to end.
Why did Erasmus want everyone to read the Bible?
Because he believed that study, inner spirituality, prayer and meditation were all more important to being a good Christian than mindless activities such as pilgrimages.
Who was Ulrich of Württemberg?
A Duke who was so unpleasant and egotistical that he taxed his people to the point of revolt.
Why was Charles V the most powerful man in Europe by age 19, almost by accident?
As the oldest surviving male on both sides of his family, his inheritance at a young age was vast.
Which three ways did Humanists play a key role before 1517?
They pioneered the practice of trying to create the purest translations possible for the Bible, they promoted the idea that a good Christian life should be based more on a deep personal understanding of the Bible than just what the Church said, and they openly criticised and made fun of the church.
When was the Death of Luther?
1546
What happened at an imperial diet?
The emperor’s propositions were read out. The colleges met separately to discuss and vote on these. The colleges then passed their views and recommendations back to the emperor, while also raising grievances or concerns of their own. If the emperor and the diet were in agreement, their conclusions were published as a ‘recess’ applicable to all, even if they hadn’t attended or voted.
How can the spiritual energy of many wealthy, literate Germans be seen in 1500?
In the high sales of books written by humanists; these books suggested ways to be a better Christian, and their popularity shows that interest in religion had never been greater.
Leadership of the HRE was provided by the Holy Roman Emperor, elected by the seven electors. In theory, any prince could stand for election. Why was this not true?
The position had gone to a member of the Habsburg family since 1437, which made sense because, as the biggest landowners in the empire, the Habsburgs were the only family rich enough for the post.
What is an indulgence?
A certificate, sold with the approval of the Church, offering a specified reduction in the time (which might be millions of years) that a soul spent in purgatory. The indulgence effectively forgave the sins of the purchaser.
Why did the personal behaviour of the Renaissance popes, Alexander VI, Julius II and Leo X cause anti-papalism?
It was almost completely at odds with their claim to be the spiritual leaders of Christendom.
Why was von Hutten, a fierce German nationalist, angered by Rome?
In his opinion, Rome took advance of the fears and superstitions of ordinary Germans, and the way Rome bled Germany dry of funds.
What were the warnings seen to show that God’s displeasure with man’s sinfulness was reaching a climax in the early 16th century?
A terrible new disease, the pox or syphilis, had appeared in the 1490s. Other ill omens circulated such as comets and ‘monstrous births’ (babies or animals born with significant abnormalities).
When was Luther in Wartburg Castle?
1521-22
Who were the Brethren of the Common Life?
A Dutch movement that believed in a simple life of prayer, poetry and piety.
How many imperial diets met between 1501-55?
28
What has historian Bernd Moeller argued?
That the work of humanists was crucial to the later success of Luther: ‘No Humanism, No Reformation’
Though he might have been a vital influence on Luther, Erasmus eventually rejected Luther completely. In 1520, Cardinal Aleander reputedly said ‘Erasmus laid the egg which Luther hatched’. What was Erasmus’ reply?
“I laid a hen’s egg, but Luther hatched a bird of quite different kind”.
Erasmus was originally destined to be a monk, but he rapidly decided that it was not the career for him. What did he do instead?
He went to study at the University of Paris.
Give an example of Erasmus’ serious works.
‘The Handbook of the Christian Soldier’ of 1501 advocated a return to a purer, simpler form of Christianity, focused on the Bible and free of all the unnecessary practices and ignorant superstitions that had accumulated over the centuries. His ‘Greek New Testament’ of 1516 was intended as a tool to help men achieve this
When was Philip of Hesse and the bigamy scandal?
1540
Renaissance Pope Leo X (1513-21) had less vicious vices than his predecessors: he was a cultured, easygoing man and a significant patron of the arts. What, then, was his ‘flaw’?
He was a spendthrift. On being made pope, he allegedly said to his brother: ‘God has given us the papacy, let us enjoy it’. To replenish his treasury, he created and sold off to the highest bidders 1353 offices in the Church. Simony on this scale scandalised Europe.
Why did inflation have a negative impact on urban labourers?
Because their wages rarely kept up with food prices.
What was the deal cut between Jakob Fugger and Albert?
Fugger would lend Albert the money he needed, Albert would sell the indulgences and funnel half the money back to Fugger, sending the other half to Rome.
Who was Ulrich von Hutten?
An imperial knight, a scholar and a poet. He was a humanist.
What did Albert have to do to become Archbishop of Mainz?
Under normal circumstances, Albert would have had to surrender his other positions to become Archbishop of Mainz. If he managed to pay Rome a large sum, he would be granted a dispensation.
How did the humanist Ulrich Von Hutten openly criticise and make fun of the church?
He co-authored a satirical volume of ‘Letters of Obscure Men’. The ‘Letters’ mocked clerical ignorance, idleness, hypocrisy and immorality,
In 1497, Celtis translated into German and published a new edition of Tacitus’ ‘Germania’. How was this groundwork for Luther’s success?
Though he had completely different motives for his protest, Luther’s anti-Rome tone found receptive audience already enthused with pro-German, anti-Italian feeling. Luther’s success, therefore, was due in part to the groundwork done by Celtis.
The imperial diet consisted of three ‘colleges’ or estates. What were they?
One for the electors, a second for the other ecclesiastical and secular princes, and a third for representatives for the imperial cities, though the latter did not achieve voting rights until 1648.
What were the main differences between Erasmus and von Hutten?
Whereas Erasmus was European in his outlook, von Hutten was a fierce German nationalist. Where Erasmus remained a firm believer in the institution of the papacy, von Hutten’s ideal was probably a German Church without the pope. Where Erasmus rejected Luther, Hutten soon supported him, though chiefly because of Luther’s anti-papal stance.
Why did population growth negatively impact peasants?
Because the custom of subdividing land equally between all sons led to smaller and smaller landholdings.
When was the Edict of Worms?
1521
Sales of indulgences were good, but Tetzel’s aggressive marketing tactics did not win universal approval. By October 1517, he had reached the borders of Electoral Saxony, where the people reacted in three very different ways. What were these three?
Frederick the Wise refused Tetzel permission to enter. His subjects flooded over the border anyways, keen as they were to purchase the powerful indulgence. Luther wrote a list of 95 theses against indulgences.
When was the Recess of Speyer?
1526
What was Erasmus’ reputation based on?
In part on his biblical scholarship and mastery of Latin and Greek, and in part on his sense of humour.
In his studies, what was Celtis particularly excited by?
By the rediscovery in 1455 of a text called ‘Germania’ written by the Ancient Roman historian Tacitus in AD98. ‘Germania’ showed how most of ancient Germany -an allegedly honourable, brave, pure Germany- had avoided conquest by the Roman Empire.
To the west of the River Elbe, how did landlords compensate for inflation in a way that harmed peasants?
They increased rents, declared hunting and fishing illegal, and enclosed land previously used for common grazing.
What does historian Ann Laurence say on the topic of clerical abuses?
“Enthusiastic lay piety was not matched by a comparable movement of spiritual renewal among the clergy.
How did von Hutten support Luther?
He backed Franz von Sickingen and other imperial knights in a demonstration of military support for Luther, an ill-judged attack on the lands of the Archbishop of Trier in 1522. The attack failed; von Hutten fled and died in obscurity the following year from syphilis, on an island in Lake Zurich. His great-nephew, Philip Melanchthon, became a leading protestant reformer in Wittenberg.
What is the background of Desiderius Erasmus?
The illegitimate son of a priest, he was born in Rotterdam and was educated at a school in Denver. Here, the teachers belonged to the Brethren of the Common Life, and it is possible to see their influence on his later life.
What was St Peter’s Basilica?
The most important building in the Roman Catholic Church- it contained the tomb of St Peter, disciple of Christ and the First pope. The original structure had been built in the 4th century by the Emperor Constantine on the site of Peter’s crucifixion.
What were the similarities between von Hutten and Erasmus?
Like Erasmus, he advocated the importance of studying the Bible free from all the interpretations layered on by Rome. Also like Erasmus, he was a strong critic of clerical abuses and he was probably one of the co-authors of ‘Letters of Obscure Men’.
To the east of the River Elbe, how did landlords compensate for inflation in a way that harmed peasants?
Landlords reintroduced serfdom- they forced peasants to work harder and longer for no money, and forbade them to move.
What was the key institution of central government in the HRE?
The imperial diet.
What is the background of Albert of Brandenburg, the man with whom Jakob Fugger linked the sale of indulgences?
Aged 23, he was ambitiously accumulating power, having already become Archbishop of Magdeburg and Bishop of Halberstadt.
What was the ‘Reformatio Sigismundi’?
Written anonymously c1438, it was published in eight editions between 1476-1522. Written in German, it was probably the most widely circulated reform paper of its time. It prophesied that one day, a simple priest would come to ‘bring the Christian Church into the best possible order’
When was the siege of Metz?
1552
When was the Battle of Mühlberg?
1546-47
As a nationalist, what did it seem logical for Celtis to think about with regards to Rome?
It seemed logical for him to ask why Germany now seemed almost totally under the control of Rome.
The success of Erasmus’ satire was extraordinary: by 1536, the ‘Colloquies’ had run to over 300 editions in 18 years. Why was he so popular?
Erasmus expressed brilliantly what people were thinking, and educated Europe laughed.
The religious needs of peasants largely involved getting God’s help now. How was this largely met?
Via ‘sacramentals’, a huge array of semi-magical practices, rituals and beliefs, such as a loaf of bread baked on Good Friday helping to avert a fire.
Luther made his initial protest in 1517. By 1521, what did one observer report?
That ‘Nine out of ten cry Luther’.
