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4U BIO > 8.1/8.2/8.3/8.4 > Flashcards

8.1/8.2/8.3/8.4 Flashcards

1
Q

Organization of Human Body Systems

A

cells–>tissues–>organs–>organ systems

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2
Q

Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems

A

Transports materials throughout the body and protects against disease along with the Immune System

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3
Q

Digestive, Excretory and Respiratory System

A

Add and/or remove substances from the blood.

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4
Q

Integumentary Systems

A

Communicate with brain and spinal cord and provide protection.

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5
Q

Muscular and Skeletal Systems

A

Enables body and its parts to move and provide protection.

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6
Q

Nervous System

A

Allows body to respond to external and internal stimuli.

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7
Q

Endocrine System

A

Chemical communication within the body.

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8
Q

Reproductive System

A

Produces and transports gametes and produces sex hormones.

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9
Q

Homeostasis

A

The tendency of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment.

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10
Q

Why is homeostasis considered a dynamic process?

A

Any given variable, such as body temperature, blood glucose levels, or blood oxygen levels, may rise and fall around an average value throughout the course of a day, but still be considered to be in balance.

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11
Q

Feedback System

A

A cycle of events in which a variable is continually monitored, assessed and adjusted.

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12
Q

Three Components of a Feedback System

A

Sensor, Control Center, Effector

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13
Q

Sensor

A

A body structure that monitors and detects changes in the internal environment.

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14
Q

Control Center

A

A body structure that sets the range of values within which a variable should be maintained, receives information from the sensor, and sends signals to effectors when needed.

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15
Q

Effector

A

A body structure that responds to signals from a control center to effect a change in a variable

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16
Q

Two Types of Feedback Systems

A

Positive and Negative

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17
Q

Negative Feedback System

A

Mechanism of homeostatic response by which the output of a system reverses a change in a variable, bringing the variable back to within normal range.

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18
Q

How does Negative Feedback work?

A
  • A sensor detects a change that disrupts a balanced state and signals a control center
  • the control center then activates an effector, which reverses the change and restores the balanced state
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19
Q

Examples of Negative Feedback Systems

A
  • body temperature

- blood glucose levels

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20
Q

Positive Feedback System

A

Mechanisms of homeostatic response by which the output of a system strengthens or increases a change in a variable.

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21
Q

Examples of Positive Feedback Systems

A
  • blood clotting

- contractions during childbirth

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22
Q

What must the body do to maintain homeostasis?

A

The human body must respond to various internal and external stimuli, and it must regulate these responses.

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23
Q

What is the Human Nervous System equipped to do?

A

Sense and respond to continuous change within the body and external environment.

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24
Q

Function of the Nervous System

A
  • Regulates body structures and processes to maintain homeostasis despite fluctuations in both the internal and external environment
  • monitors and controls body processes
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25
Q

Nerve Impulse

A

An electrochemical signal to or from the brain.

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26
Q

What makes up the nervous system?

A
  • brain
  • spinal cord
  • nerves that emerge from them and connect them to the rest of the body
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27
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Network of nerves that includes the brain and spinal cord; integrates and processes information sent by nerves

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28
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Network of nerves that carry sensory messages to the central nervous system (CNS) and send info from the CNS to the muscles and glands; consists of the autonomic and somatic system.

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29
Q

Involuntary Processes

A

Ones that do not require conscious control.

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30
Q

Neurons

A
  • nerve cell; the structural and functional unit of the nervous system
  • specialized to respond to physical and chemical stimuli, to conduct electrochemical signals and to release chemicals that regulate various body processes
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31
Q

Nerve

A

Message pathway of the nervous system; made up of many neurons grouped into bundles and surrounded by protective connected tissue.

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32
Q

Glial Cells

A

Support cells of the nervous system that nourishes neurons, removes their wastes, defends against infection, and provides a supporting framework for all the nervous-system tissue.

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33
Q

Four Common Features of All Neurons

A

Dendrites, Cell Body, Axon, Branching Ends

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34
Q

Dendrites

A

Short, branching terminals that receive nerve impulses from other neurons or sensory receptors and relay the impulse to the cell body.

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35
Q

Cell Body

A

Contains the nucleus and is the site of the cell’s metabolic reactions; processes the input from the dendrites.

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36
Q

Axon

A

Conducts impulses away from the cell body; range in length from 1mm to 1m (sciatic)

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37
Q

Branching Ends

A

At the end of the axon; communicates with adjacent neurons, glands or muscles by releasing chemical signlas into the space between it and the receptors or dendrites of neighbouring cells.

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38
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

The fatty, insulating layer around the axon of a nerve cell, composed of Schwann cells; protects myelinated axons and speeds the rate of nerve impulse transmission.

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39
Q

How are neurons classified?

A

By their structure and function.

Number of processes that extend from the cell body

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40
Q

Three Types of Neurons Based of Structure

A

Multipolar, Bipolar, Unipolar

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41
Q

Multipolar

A
  • several dendrites
  • single axon
  • brain and spinal cord
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42
Q

Bipolar

A
  • single main dendrite
  • single axon
  • inner ear, retina of the eye, olfactory area of the brain
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43
Q

Unipolar

A
  • single process that extends from the cell body
  • dendrite and axon are fused
  • peripheral nervous system
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44
Q

Three Types of Neurons Based on Function

A

Sensory Neurons, Interneurons, Motor Neurons

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45
Q

Sensory Input

A
  • sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, receive stimuli and form a nerve impulse
  • sensory neurons transmit impulses from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system
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46
Q

Integration

A
  • interneurons are found only in CNS
  • link between sensory and motor neurons
  • process and integrate incoming sensory info
  • relay outgoing motor info
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47
Q

Motor Output

A

-motor neurons transmit info from the CNS to effectors including muscles, glands, and other organs that respond to impulses from motor neurons

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48
Q

Reflexes

A

Sudden, involuntary responses to certain stimuli (eg. jerking hand away from hot object)

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49
Q

Reflex Arc

A

Simple connection of neurons that results in a reflex action in response to a stimulus.
usuallly involve only 3 neurons so it is rapid

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50
Q

How does the reflex arc work?

A
  • it moves directly to an from the brain and spinal cord, before the brain centres involved with voluntary control have time to process the sensory info
  • this is why pain is felt after when the brain has had time to process*
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51
Q

How do neurons communicate?

A
  • they use electrical signals to communicate with other neurons, muscles and glands
  • involves changes in the amount of electric charge across a cell’s plasma membrane
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52
Q

Membrane Potential

A

Electrical charge separation across a cell membrane; a form of potential energy

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53
Q

Resting Membrane Potential

A

Potential difference across the membrane in a resting neuron.
About -70mV; negative on the inside of the cell relative to the outside

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54
Q

Three Factors that Contribute to Maintaining Resting Membrane Potential

A
  • Large Protein Molecules
  • Plasma Membrane Contains Ion-Specific Channels
  • Sodium-Potassium Pump
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55
Q

Large Protein Molecule

A

-negatively charged and are present in the intracellular fluid but not outside of the cell

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56
Q

Ions in the Plasma Membrane

A

-ion-specifc channels that allow for the passive movement of ions, such as Na & K across the membrane

57
Q

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A

-actively transports Na+ and K+ in rations that leave the inside of the cell negatively charged compared to the outside of the cell

58
Q

Polarization

A

Lowering the membrane potential of the cell below its equilibrium value; in nerves, the process of generating a resting membrane potential of -70mV.

59
Q

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A

System involving a carrier protein in the plasma membrane that uses the energy of ATP to transport sodium ions out of and potassium ions into animal cells; important in nerve and muscle cells

60
Q

Step One of Sodium-Potassium Pump

A

The carrier protein has a shape that allows it to take up 3 sodiums ions.

61
Q

Step Two of Sodium-Potassium Pump

A
  • ATP is split and a phosphate group (Pi) is transferred to the carrier protein
  • a change in the shape of the carrier protein causes the release of 3 Na+ outside the cell
62
Q

Step Three of Sodium -Potassium Pump

A

The altered shape permits the uptake of 2 potassium ions (K+) from outside the cell.

63
Q

Step Four of Sodium-Potassium Pump

A
  • the phosphate group is released from the carrier protein
  • the change in shape of the carrier protein causes the release of 2 K+ into the cell
  • the carrier protein is again able to take up 3 Na+, and the process repeats
64
Q

Why is it referred to as “resting” membrane potential when the Sodium-Potassium pump is constantly using energy to transport the ions?

A
  • no nerve impulses are being transmitted along the axon
  • the resting potential maintains the axon membrane in a condition of readiness for an impulse to occur
  • energy for eventual impulses is stored in the electrochemical gradient across the membrane
65
Q

Depolarization

A
  • when the cell becomes less polarized
  • the membrane potential is reduced to less than the resting potential of -70mV
  • the inside of the cell becomes less negative relative to the outside of the cell
66
Q

Action Potential

A
  • the movement of an electrical impulse along the plasma membrane of an axon
  • results in a rapid change in polarity across the axon membrane as the nerve impulse occurs
67
Q

Threshold Potential

A

A certain level of membrane potential that is reached, results in an action potential (usually close to -50mV)

68
Q

Characteristics of a Change in the Membrane Potential that Occur During an Action Potential

A
  • occur within a period of a few milliseconds

- occur in one small region of the axon membrane

69
Q

Step 1 of Changes in the Membrane Potential During Action Potential

A

-an action potential is triggered when the threshold potential is reached

70
Q

Step 2 of Changes in the Membrane Potential During Action Potential

A
  • when threshold is reached, special structure in the membrane called voltage-gated sodium channels open and make the membrane very permeable to sodium ions
  • the sodium ions on the outside of the axon suddenly move down their concentration gradient and rush into the axon
  • Within a millisecond or less, enough positively charged sodium ions have crossed the membrane to make the potential difference across the membrane in that tiny region of the axon at +40mV
71
Q

Step 3 of Changes in the Membrane Potential During Action Potential

A
  • As a result of the change in membrane potential, the sodium channels close and voltage-gated potassium channels open
  • Potassium now moves down their concentration gradient toward the outside of the axon, carrying positive charge out of the neuron
  • As a result, the membrane potential becomes more negative again, in fact, the membrane potential becomes slightly more negative than its original resting potential, becoming HYPERPOLARIZED to about -90mV
  • At this point, the potassium channels close
72
Q

Step 4 of Changes in the Membrane Potential During Action Potential

A

-The Na+/K+ pump and the small amt of naturally occurring diffusion quickly bring the membrane back to its normal resting potential of -70mV (REPOLARIZATION)

73
Q

Refractory Period

A

A few milliseconds after an action potential, the membrane cannot be stimulated to undergo another action potential

74
Q

What occurs after the process of action potential?

A

-the entire process continues down the length of an axon until it reaches the end, where it initiates a response at the junction with the next cell

75
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

-exposed areas of myelinated neurons that occur at regular intervals

76
Q

Myelinated Nerve Impulse

A

With myelin sheath, action potential conduction along axons is much quicker because it jump’s from Node of Ranvier to Node of Ranvier

77
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

The conduction of an impulse along a myelinated neuron due to the myelin sheath

78
Q

Synapse

A

Junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector (muscle or gland)

79
Q

Neuromuscular Junction

A

Synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle cell.

80
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

Small gap between neurons.

-0.02 micrometers wide (neurons are not close enough for the impulse to jump from one to the other)

81
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messenger secreted by neurons to carry a neural signal from one neuron to another, or from a neuron to an effector, such as a gland or muscle fibre.

82
Q

How do neurotransmitters work?

A
  • When action potential arrives at the end of a presynaptic neuron, the impulse causes intracellular sacs that contain neurotransmitters to fuse with the membrane of the axon and release their contents into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis
  • The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse to reach the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron, or cell membrane of effector (0.5 to 1.0 ms)
  • Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptors on postsynaptic membrane triggering and ion-specific channels to open
  • If this depolarizes cell to threshold potential, another action potential occurs and the impulse will travel along post synaptic neuron and so on…
83
Q

What effects do neurotransmitters have on the post-synaptic membrane?

A

Either excitatory or inhibitory effects.

84
Q

Excitatory

A
  • causes opening of channels allowing positive ions e.g. sodium to flow into postsynaptic neuron
  • causes depolarization
85
Q

Inhibitory

A
  • causes opening of channels e.g. potassium channels, allowing potassium to flow out
  • causes hyperpolarixation
86
Q

Acetylcholine

A

The primary neurotransmitter of both the somatic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

87
Q

Dopamine

A
  • affects the brain synapses in the control of body movements; linked to sensations of pleasure such as eating
  • Excessive production linked to schizophrenia; inadequate production linked to Parkinson’s disease
88
Q

Serotonin

A
  • regulates temperature and sensory perception, involved in mood control
  • inadequate amounts linked to depression
89
Q

Endorphins

A
  • act as natural painkillers in the brain; also affect emotional areas of the brain
  • Deficiency linked to an increased risk of alcoholism
90
Q

Norepinephrine

A
  • used by brain and some autoimmune neurons; complements the actions of the hormone epinephrine, which readies the body to respond to danger or other stressful situations
  • Overproduction linked to high blood pressure, anxiety, and insomnia; deficiency linked to hunger cravings and exhaustion
91
Q

Brain

A

Coordinating center of the nervous system.

92
Q

Grey Matter

A
  • contains mostly cell bodies, dendrites and short, unmyelinated axons
  • found around outside areas of the brain and forms H-shpaed core of the spinal cord
93
Q

White Matter

A
  • contains myelinated axons that run together in tracts

- forms the inner region of some areas of the brain and the outer area of the spinal cord

94
Q

Spinal Cord

A

Carries sensory nerve messages from receptors to brain and relays motor nerve messages from brain to muscles, organs and glands.

95
Q

What is the delicate tissue of the spinal cord protected by?

A

Cerebrospinal Fluid, Soft Tissue Layers and the Spinal Column

96
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

Dense, clear liquid derived from blood plasma, found in the ventricles of the brain, in the central canal of the spinal cord, and in association with the meninges; transports hormones, white blood cells , and nutrients across the blood-brain barrier to the cells of the brain and spinal cord; acts as a shock absorber to cushion the brain.

97
Q

Three General Regions of the Brain

A

Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain

98
Q

Meninges

A

Three layers of tough, elastic tissue within the skull and spinal column that directly enclose the brain and spinal cord.

99
Q

Olfactory Lobes

A

-receive info about smell

100
Q

Cerebum

A

-paired giant hemispheres, major co-ordinating centre; speech, reasoning, memory, personality

101
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A
  • surface of cerebrum, composed of grey matter

- linked with activities associated with thinking and feeling

102
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

-bundle of white matter that joins the two hemispheres and allows communication between them

103
Q

Thalamus

A

Coordinates and interprets sensory info and directs it to the cerebrum.

104
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Direct connection to pituitary gland unites nervous system and endocrine system.

105
Q

Frontal Lobe

A
  • motor areas control movement of voluntary muscles

- intellectual activities and personality

106
Q

Temporal Lobe

A
  • Sensory areas are associated with vision and hearing

- memory and interpretation of sensory info

107
Q

Parietal Lobe

A
  • sensory areas are associated with touch and temperature awareness
  • linked to emotions and interpreting speech
108
Q

Occipital Lobe

A
  • sensory areas are associated with vision

- interpret visual info

109
Q

Midbrain

A
  • consists of four spheres of grey matter

- acts as relay centre for some eye and ear reflexes

110
Q

Cerebellum

A

-controls limb movements, balance, muscle tone

111
Q

Pons

A

-largely a relay station passing information between the two regions of the cerebellum and between cerebellum and medulla

112
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A
  • joins brain to spinal cord

- works to maintain homeostasis

113
Q

Blood-Brain Barrier

A

Protective barrier formed by glial cells and blood vessels that separates the blood from the central nervous system; selectively controls the entrance of substances in the brain from the blood.

114
Q

Right Brain

A

Associated with holistic and intuitive thinking, visual-spatial skills, and artistic abilities.

115
Q

Left Brain

A

Linked to segmental, sequential, and logical ways of thinking and to linguistic and mathematical skills.

116
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Network of nerves that carry sensory messages to the central nervous and send info from the CNS to the muscles and glands.

117
Q

Two Divisions of The Peripheral Nervous System

A

Autonomic and Somatic

118
Q

What kind of control is the Somatic system under?

A

Voluntary

119
Q

What areas do the neurons of the somatic system service?

A

Head, trunk, limbs

120
Q

Somatic System

A

In vertebrates, division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.

121
Q

What does the somatic system include?

A

12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves (all myelinated)

122
Q

What are the cranial nerves mostly associated with?

A

Functions in the head, neck, and face.

123
Q

Autonomic System

A

In vertebrates, the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary glandular secretions and the functions of smooth and cardiac muscle.
-maintains homeostasis

124
Q

What kind of control is the autonomic system under?

A

Involuntary

125
Q

What do the nerves of the autonomic system control?

A

Stimulate or inhibit the glands of the cardiac or smooth muscle.

126
Q

How does the autonomic system maintain homeostasis?

A

Adjusts the body to variations in the external and internal environments without the individual having to think about it and control it consciously.

127
Q

What is the autonomic system controlled by?

A

Hypothalamus and medulla oblongata.

128
Q

Two Divisions of Autonomic System

A

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

129
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

Regulates involuntary processes in the body; works in opposition to the parasympathetic nervous system; typically activated in stress-related situations.

130
Q

What is another name for the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Fight or Flight

131
Q

What do sympathetic neurons release?

A

Norepinephrine

132
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Neurotransmitter released by sympathetic neurons to produce an excitatory effect on target muscles.

133
Q

What else is released during fight or flight?

A

Adrenal glands release epinephrine and more norepinephrine which function as hormones to activate stress response.

134
Q

Bodies Response to Fight or Flight

A

Increased blood pressure and heart rate, digestion slows, bladder sphincter constricts, feeling of anxiety

135
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

Regulates involuntary processes in the body; works in opposition to the sympathetic nervous system; typically activated when the body is calm and at rest

136
Q

What is another name for the parasympathetic system?

A

Rest and Digest

137
Q

Functions of the parasympathetic system?

A
  • restores and conserves energy
  • slows heart rate
  • reduces blood pressure
  • promotes digestion of food
138
Q

What neurotransmitter is used by the parasympathetic system?

A

Acetylcholine which control organ responses

4U BIO (11 decks)

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