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HL Biology > 6. Human Physiology > Flashcards

6. Human Physiology Flashcards

(80 cards)

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1
Q

6.1 Bile makeup

A

Contains bile salts
- interact with fat globules and divide them into smaller droplets

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2
Q

6.1 Stomache acid makeup

A
  • releases digestive acids to create low pH to denature protiens
    + pepsin enzyme
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3
Q

6.1 What is peristalsis?

A

Muscle contractions along digestive tract

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4
Q

6.1 What is the iluem?

A

The final and largest section of the small intestine

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5
Q

6.1 Small intestine vs large intestine

A

Small intestine: usable food substances: monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins

Large intenstine: water and disolved minerals

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6
Q

6.1 Draw the structure of the iluem

A
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7
Q

6.1 Draw the digestive system including descriptions

A

Salvitory Glands: moistion, begin carbohydrate digestion ( amylase )

Esophogus: Transport food via peristalsis

Stomache: Store and churn food, begin protien digestion (protease)

Pancreas: Release digestive enzymes, release hormones

Gall bladder: Store/secrete bile

Liver: Detoxify, stores vitamins, Iron, gylcogen, syntesizes bile

Small I: Absorbs nutrients

Large I: Absorbs water and ions

Rectum: Release of waste

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8
Q

6.1 Types of intenstine muscle contraction

A

Circular: Contraction behind food to prevent backward movement

Longitudinal: Pushes food along

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9
Q

6.1 Peristalsis in stomache vs intestine

A

Stomache: One pulse from esophogus to stomache

Esophagus: slow, mix with enzymes

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10
Q

6.1 Glands of pancreas

A

The pancreas has two gland tissues, exocrine (main) for enzymes and endocrine (smaller) for hormones.

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11
Q

6.1 Enzymes of pancreas

A

Lipase
Amylase
Protease

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12
Q

6.1 Structure of villus epithelial cells

A

Tight junctions between cells
Microvilli
More mitochondria
Pinocytotic vesicles

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13
Q

6.1 What is the structure of intestional villi?

A

Microvilli
Dense capillary network
Single layer epithelium
Lacteal -absorbs lipids into lymphatic system
Inteestinal glands (exocrine pits) release digestive juices
Membrane protiens

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14
Q

6.1 What do intestional villi absorb?

A

Glucose, fructose, galactose
Any A-acids
Fatty acids, monoglycerodes + glycerol
Bases from nucleotides
Mineral ions

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15
Q

6.1 What are the two way the pancreas breaks down starch?

A

Exocrine: Amylase from acinar cells

Endocrine: Hormones

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16
Q

6.1 What is the duodenum?

A

First section of teh S.I which is fed by pancreas and gall bladder

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17
Q

6.2 What is atheroscelrosis?

A

The build up of fat deposits in coronary arteries

Plaques are created form fat buildup, if these rupter clots form a thrombus

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18
Q

6.1 Where does starch get broken down?

A

Starts in mouth w/ saliva, not in stomache pH bad, then gets broken down in intestine w/ amylase

Amylose –> maltose
Amylopectin –> dextrins

Both these disaccharides get broken down by maltase fixed to the epithelial lining of the small intestine

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19
Q

6.1 Methods of absorption for the villi

A

1) NA+ and glucose/amino acids cotransported
2) Triglycerides are broken into fatty acids + monoglyceride which simple diffuse,

Everything diffuses out (monosaccharides facilitated) into capillary, lipids into lacteal

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20
Q

6.2 Types of tissue in arteries

A

Elastic: Contains elastic fibers which store energy at peak stretch, recoil sends blood down artery

Muscular tissue: determines diameter of lumen

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21
Q

6.2 Structure of artery (description)

A

Lumen
Tunica Interna
Tunica Media
Tunica externa

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22
Q

6.2 Blood pressure terms

A

Systolic = peak pressure
Diastolic = resting

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23
Q

6.2 What are capillaries?

A

Narrowest blood vessels
Form extensive networks
Bring blood to almost all tissues

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24
Q

6.2 Capillary structure

A

Wall = thin endotheliym cells covered in fliter like protien

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25
6.2 How does exchange with capillaries work?
The permeability of the wall allows part of the plasma to leak out and become tissue fluid. This flows between cells allowing absorption and excretion of waste before it is reabsorped
26
6.2 Plasma vs Tissue Fluid
Plasma: fluid around red blood cells Tissue fluid: O2, glucose, other substances (not protiens, too big)
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6.2 Vein purpose
Collect blood at low pressure to go back to heart, not thick walls and valves
28
6.2 Circulation of blood
Systematic circulation: pumps oxygenated blood around body Pulmonary Circulation: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
29
6.2 Draw a heart
30
6.2 Heart valves
Tri Me PA Atrioventricular (AV): Tricuspid (right) , mitral Semilunar (SL) Pulminary (right), aortic
31
6.2 Path of pulmonary circulation
Superior vena cava --> right atrium --> AV valve --> right ventricle (also inferior vena cava enters to ventricle) --> SL valve --> pulmonary artery
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6.2 Path of systematic circulation
Pulmonary vein --> left atrium --> AV valve -- left ventricle --> SL valve --> aorta
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6.2 Cardiac cycle
0-0.1: Atria contracts pushing open AV valves 0.1-0.15: Ventricle contracts, closing AV valves 0.15-0.4: Pressure increases in ventricle pushing open sumilunar valves 0.4-0.45: ventricle relaxes, SL valve closes 0.45-0.8 pressure drops, AV valves open
34
6.2 Heart beat sound
Caused by AV valves Lub - close Dub - open
35
6.2 Heartbeat pacemaker
Sinoatrial node is a group of speciliazed muscle cells that kicks off a wave of depolarization first in atria Then 0.1 secs later in vetricles
36
6.2 Control of heartrate by brain
The cardiovascular center in the medulla has two branches of nerves. - One increases pase - The other decreases Indicators: Low blood pr, low O, low pH = need speed up High that stuff = slow down Epinephrine: hormone that increases pace, from adrenal glands
37
6.3 Surface barriers of defense
Skin: Extneral structures tough physical barrer, mostly dead skin cells, sebacious glands secrete sebum (lowers skin pH, inhibits growth) Mucuous membranes: Internal structures that are externally accesable traps pathogens, antibacterial enzyme - lysozume
38
6.3 Clotting process
1) Platelets (cellular fragments) form temperary plug 2) Platelets release clotting factor 3) This triggers conversion of prothrombin into thrombin 4) Thrombin converts fibrogen into insoluble fibrin 5) Fibrin forms mesh around plug and traps blood cells that harden 6) When damage is repaired, plasmin (enzyme) disolves clot
39
6.3 Coronary Thrombosis
Formation of clot within coronary arteries (blood vessels that sustain heart) Form when vessels are damaged as a result of cholestoral deposits (atherosclerosis) ruptering
40
6.3 Role of Phagocytes
Phagocytes are part of the non-specific innate immune system Phagocytic leukocytes (white blood cells) circulate blood and move through body tissue. Leukocytes are drawn by the release of histamines Through phagocytosis pathogens are englufed (endocytosis) and the vesciel is fused to a lysosome. Antigens may be presented
41
6.3 Types of Leukocytes (white blood cells)
Neutrophils: majority of white blood cells, phagocytosis - unable to renew lysosome, become pus ex: police Eosinophils: prominent at allergic reactions and parasitic infection (common in mucus, not blood) - release chemicals to perforate cells ex: pest control Basophil: mainly responsible for initiating inflamattory response by releasing histamine - Similar to mast cells but circulate in bloodstream ex: Fireman Monocyte: share phagocytosis duties, slower but longer lasting Will differentiate into two types of cells in response to infection -Macrophage: remain in tissue and phagocytosis, riot police -Dendritic cell: present antigen fragments to lymphocytes Lymphocyte: antibody production - B Cells (plasma + memory) - T Cells (helper, cytotoxic) ex: superheros
42
6.3 Role of antibiotics
Target bacterial DNA replication, transcription, translation, ribosome function and cell wall formation - Mainly discovered in saprotrophic fungi
43
6.3 Antibiotics and viruses
Viruses have no metabolic processes no antibiotics do nothing
44
6.3 Development of antibioirc resistance
Process: Natural selection, fast reproduction, horizontal gene transfer (plasmids) Factors: Over prescription, no presciption use (over the conter), common in hospitals
45
6.4 Draw a diagram of alveoulus and adjacent capillaries
46
6.4 Types of pneumocytes
Type 1: Most cells in epithelium are type 1 Type 2: Secrete solution to keep alveoli moist - form monolayer (similar to phospholipids) on surface of wet alveoli - Reduces surface tension and prevents water escaping
47
6.4 Draw a diagram of alveoli
48
6.4 Process of inspiration
Primary muscles: Diaphragm and external intercostal Diaphragm contracts, becoming flat and increasing volume of thoracic cavity External intercostals contract, pulling ribs up and out
49
6.4 Process of expiration
Primary muscles: abdominal and internal intercostals Abdominal muscles: As diaphragm relaxes, abs conract and push diaphragm upward Internal intercostals: pull ribs downward and external muscles relax
50
6.4 Lung cancer
Causes: Smoking, air pollution, infections, genetic predispositions
51
6.4 Emphysema
Lung conditinon caused by damage to alveolar walls. - Leads to loss of elasticity for alveoli which causes abnormal enlargement - Smaller number of larger air saces = reduced SA Major cause = smoking
52
6.5 Draw a nueron cell
53
6.5 What is the difference between the endocrine and nervous system?
Endocrine = hormones Nervous = nuerons
54
6.5 What are the two types of growth from nueron cells?
Dendrites: Short-branched (between other nuerons) Axons: Elongated
55
6.5 What are myelinated nerve fibers?
Some nerve fiber are coated with myelin Schwann cells grow around nerve fibers, each time they grow a double layer of phoslipid bilayer - the gap between myelin is called node of Ranvier
56
6.5 Resting potential of a nueron
Nuerons not transmitting have a resting potential caused by a natural imbalance
57
6.5 What causes the resting potential of a nueron?
Sodium-potassium pump: pumps NA out and K in to maintain charge K+ ions leak back across faster than Na+ Negatively charged prtoeins inside increase imbalance
58
6.5 Concentration of ions during resting potential
More K+ inside, more Na+ outside 3Na, 2K
59
6.5 Stages of action potential
Depolarization: Sodium channel opens, Na goes inside, membrane potential becomes positive Repolarization: Potassium channels open, potassium moves outside (negative again, but opposite with Na inside and K outside) Refractory Period: Other channels closed, Na+/K+ pump brings K in and pushes Na out
60
6.5 What are nerve impulses?
Propogation of action potentials from one end to the other of a nueron Depolarization triggers neighbors depolarization
61
6.5 What are local currents?
Diffusion of Na+ with its depolarized part and non-depolarized neighbor
62
6.5 What are synapses?
Junctions between nuerons or nueron and receptor (effector) cells
63
6.5 Steps of transmission at synapses
1) Action potential arrives at axon terminal 2) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open (because of depolarization) 3) Ca2+ enters presynaptic nueron 4) Ca2+ singals to nuerotransmitter vesicles 5) Vesicles move to membrane and release transmitters via exocytosis 6) Nuerotransmitters bind to receptor 7) Ligand-gated ion channels open 8) Sodium ions diffuse down gradients and cause post-synaptic memrbane to reach threshold potential 9) Depolarization triggered 10) Nuerotrasnmitters broken down and removed
64
6.5 What is acetylcholine?
A common nuerotransmitter synthesized in pre-synaptic cell w/ choline (diet) and acetyl (respiration) Acetylcholine remains for a short time in receptor before acetylcholinesterase breaks it down, choline reabsorbed
65
6.5 What are neonicotinoids?
These molecules bind to acetylcholine-receptors and can't be removed w/ enzyme - effective insecticide - toxic to humans
66
6.5 What is the threshold potential
Action potentials only happen when threshold potential is reached, voltage-gated sodium channels open then - Amount of nuerotransmitted secreted may not be enough to cause threshold potential - Typical post synaptic nueron has multiple synapses, may require several nuerotransmitter releases
67
6.6 How are glucagon and insulin secreted?
From pancreatic pits called islets of Langerhans Insulin comes from beta cells Glucagon from ALpha cells
68
6.6 Type 1 vs Type 2 Diabetes
Types 1: Body fails to produce insulin, treated with injections Type 2: Failing to respond to insulin production, monitoring dietary intake
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6.6 What is thyroxin and how is it secreted
Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland in hypothalamus - increases basal metabolic rate Needs iodine, defficency is bad
70
6.6 What is leptin and how is it produced?
Leptid is produced by adipose cells and it supresses appetite
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6.6 What is melatonin and how is it produced?
Produced by pineal gland, light exposire inhibits melatonin secretion
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6.6 How is male sex determined?
On the Y chromosome the SRY gene codes for TDF which causes development of testes, these produce testosterone to further dedvelopment
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6.6 How is female sex determined?
In absence of SRY, ovaries will develop instead and those will secrete estrogen and progesterone
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6.6 Draw the male reproductive system
75
6.6 Draw the female reproductive system
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6.6 What is FSH, where is it produced and when?
Produced by anterior pituitary gland - stimulates follicular growth - stimulates estrogen secretion Peaks right before ovulation / less than LH
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6.6 What is LH?
- surge causes ovulation - results in formation of corpus luteum Anterior pituitary Surges high at ovulation
78
6.6 Purpose of estrogen
Secreted by ovaries - thickens endometrium - inhibits FSH and LG - stimulates FSH and LH pre ovulation Rises over follicle cycle, peaks at ovulation, high during luteal
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6.6 Purpose of progesterone
Thickins endometrium Inhibits FSH and LH Anterior pituitary Highest at luteal phase
80
6.6 What two hormones is the posterior pituitary gland responsible for?
ADH Oxytocin

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