6.4-aDvAnTaGeS aNd dIsAdVaNtAgEs (cloning and biotech) Flashcards
1
Q
what are clones?
A
genetically identical organisms or cells
2
Q
how are clones produced in nature?
A
asexual reproduction
3
Q
how do single celled yeasts reproduce?
A
budding
4
Q
how do bacteria reproduce?
A
binary fission
5
Q
whAt aRe tHe aDvAnTaGeS of natural cloning?
A
1) if growth conditions are good for parent, they’re good for offspring.
2) relatively rapid-population can increase quickly to take advantage of advantageous environment.
3) reproduction can happen when only 1 parent is available.
6
Q
whAt aRe tHe dIsaDvAnTaGeS of natural cloning?
A
1) offspring could become overcrowded
2) no genetic diversity
3) little variation
4) selection impossible
5) if environment becomes less advantageous whole population is susceptible.
7
Q
what is vegetative propagation?
A
reproduction from vegetative parts of a plant as opposed to specialised reproductive structures.
8
Q
how do plants reproduce by vegetative propagation?
A
1) runners, stolons,rhizomes, suckers
2) bulbs
3) corms
4) leaves
5) tubers
9
Q
what are runners/stolens?
A
horizontal stems that can form roots at certain points, growing on the surface of the ground.
10
Q
what are rhizomes?
A
horizontal stems that can form roots at certain points, growing underground.
11
Q
what are suckers?
A
new stems that grow form the roots of a plant (root sprouts)
12
Q
what is a perennial plant?
A
a plant that lives more than two years
13
Q
what are monocotyledonous plants?
A
flowering plants whose seeds typically contain only one embryonic leaf.
14
Q
what is the purpose of bulbs?
A
an overwintering mechanism for many perennial monocotyledonous plants.
15
Q
what are bulbs made of?
A
a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases that function as food storage organs during dormancy.
16
Q
what are 2 examples of bulbs?
A
onions
hyacinth bulbs
17
Q
what are corms?
A
underground stems with scaly leaves and buds
18
Q
what is the difference between corms and bulbs?
A
corms are solid,bulbs are fleshy.
19
Q
do corms stay in the ground over winter?
A
ye
20
Q
what are 2 examples of corms?
A
croci (plural of crocus yeeet)
the root vegetable taro (also yeet)
21
Q
how do leaves reproduce asexually?
A
clones grow on the leaf margins (edge of the leaf), immature plants drop off the leaf and take root.
22
Q
what are tubers?
A
another type of underground stem
23
Q
what is an example of a tuber?
A
potatoes
24
Q
name a plant that reproduces by their leaves doing the cloning
A
the kalanchoe plant (tropical and succccculent)
25
how do identical twins form?
the 2 daughter cells of a zygote split to become 2 separate cells.
26
what are examples of animals that commonly reproduce asexually to produce clones?
greenfly
| water flea
27
how are clones produced naturally in animals?
identical twins
| asexual reproduction
28
what is micropropagation?
growing large numbers of new plants from meristem tissue taken from a sample plant.
29
what is tissue culture?
growing new cells, tissues, organs or plants from certain tissues cut from a sample plant.
30
how do you do plant cutting?
cut a stem in between 2 leaf joints (nodes) and put it in moist soil-can put it in rooting hormone to stimulate growth.
31
what parts of plants can you take cuttings from?
nodes
roots
scions`
leaves
32
how do you do a root cutting?
section of root buried just below soil surface produces new shoots
33
what is a scion?
dormant woody twig
34
what happens in leaf cuttings?
leaf places on moist soil and can grow new stems +roots
35
what are the advantages of natural cloning?
relatively rapid
can happen where sexual reproduction is impossible
same desirable characteristics as parent
unusual gene combo maintained
easier to grow and harvest
new plants free from viruses if u use apical stem.
36
what are the disadvantages of natural cloning?
```
labour intensive
expensive
can fail due to microbial contamination
susceptible to same pests + diseases
no genetic variation
```
37
what is embryo twinning?
splitting an embryo to create 2genetically identical embryos.
38
what is enucleation?
removal of the cell nucleus
39
what is somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)?
a technique that involves transferring the nucleus from a somatic cell to an egg cell.
40
what does totipotent mean?
cells that can differentiate into all cell types
41
what are the 2 main techniques to achieve reproductive cloning?
embryo twinning
| somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
42
what can embryo twinning be used for?
cloning elite farm animals
| cloning animals for scientific research
43
when will you find out the phenotype and genotype of a embryo splitting offspring?
when they're born cause it depends on the sperm and egg used
44
what is the only way to clone an adult animal?
SCNT (somatic cell nuclear transfer)
45
what is the advantage of SCNT?
the phenotype is known before cloning starts.
46
what happens during SCNT?
enucleation of egg, nucleus of somatic cell isolated and put into empty egg, electric shock, egg starts dividing mitosis, surrogate.
47
what is a somatic cell?
normal body cell
48
what's a problem with transplanting donated organs?
could be rejected
49
what are 2 reasons for non reproductive cloning?
therapeutic cloning
| cloning for scientific research
50
what does therapeutic cloning involve?
growing new tissues and organs as replacement parts for people who aren't well.
51
what are 2 examples of therapeutic cloning?
- skin grown in vitro to act as graft over burnt areas.
| - cloned cells used to repair damage to the spinal cord
52
what are the arguments for artificial cloning in animals?
high yield
high value characteristics retained
scientific research-no interference from genotypes
can test medicine on cloned cells w/o using animals
can produce genetically identical cells to donor to repair damage
endangered species can be cloned to increase numbers
53
what are the disadvantages of artificial cloning in animals?
```
diseases/pests
little regard for animal welfare
poor success rate of adult cell cloning
more expensive than conventional breeding
cloned animals may be less healthy
ethical issues -use of embryos
doesn't help increase genetic diversity
```
54
what is biotechnology?
the use of living organisms or parts of them in industrial processes.
55
what's the oldest example of biotechnology?
production of beer or ale
56
what bacterium was used to produce acetone?
clostridium acetobutylicum
57
why was acetone needed in ww1?
to make explosives
58
what is S.cerivisiae used to make?
ethanol in beer and wine
| CO2 used to make bread rise
59
what microorganism makes lactic acid used to make yogurt and cheese?
lactobacillus bacteria
60
what microorganism makes mycoprotein?
fusarium venenatum fungus
61
what is mycoprotein?
a filamentous fungus protein (SCP-singe celled protein) used to make vegetarian food
62
what microorganism makes soya?
yeast or aspergillus (fungi)
63
what microorganism makes penicillin ?
penicillum fungus
64
what microorganism makes protease and lipase?
bacteria eg bacillus licheniformis
65
what microorganism makes sucrase used to digest sugar to make food sweetener ?
yeast and aspergillus species
66
what microorganism makes amylase to produce syrup?
A.oryzae (fungi)
67
what microorganism makes protease to tenderise meat?
aspergillus species
68
what microorganism makes citric acid?
Aspergillus niger fungus
69
what is citric acid used for?
food preservative (E330)
70
so overall, what does aspergillus do?
```
make soya
makes pectinase
makes sucrase
makes protease
makes citric acid
```
71
what microorganism makes pectinase?
aspergillus niger
72
what does pectinase do?
extracts juice from fruit
73
what's the basic process of making yoghurt?
bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid
| lactic acid denatures milk protein so it coagulates.
74
which 2 bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid in the process of making yoghurt?
lactobacillus bulgaricus
| streptococcus thermophillus
75
what's the role of bacteria in making yoghurt (apart from making lactic acid)?
they partially digest milk making it easy for us to digest
| fermentation produces flavours characteristic of yoghurt
76
what may be added to yoghurt?
probiotics
77
what is milk usually pretreated with in the making of cheese?
a culture of lactobacillus bacteria
78
what are the basic steps of making cheese?
1) milk is acidified
2) mixed with rennet
3) coagulates milk protein
4) resulting solid=curd-curds separated from whey
5) pressed into moulds
79
what does rennet contain?
the enzyme rennin (chymosin)
80
what is the milk protein called?
casein
81
what does rennin need to coagulate the milk protein?
Ca2+ ions
82
what keeps the casein in solution?
kappa-casein
83
what is the effect of kappa-casein being broken down?
makes casein insoluble
84
what is the role of Ca2+ in cheese production?
casein precipitated by Ca2+s which bind the molecules together
85
how is curd separated from whey?
cutting, stirring, heating
86
what are the 3 key steps of breadmaking?
1) mixing
2) proving/fermenting
3) cooking
87
what does the mixing step of making bread involve?
kneading to produce dough
88
what does the proving step of making bread involve?
dough left in a warm place for up to 3 hours while the yeast anaerobically respires, producing c02 bubbles causing dough to rise
89
why is the cooking stage of making bread important?
any alcohol made evaporates
90
why are grapes used in wine?
naturally have yeasts in their skin +contain sugars fructose and glucose so when crushed yeast uses these sugars to produce alcohol and co2.
91
what does the brewing of beer or ale involve?
barley grains which are malted (made to germinate then dried) . as the grain germinates it converts starch to maltose which is respired by the yeast.
92
what is the potential sustainable future of creating SCP ?
using microorganisms (like kluyveromyces, scytlalidium, or candida) to produce protein w a similiar amino acid profile to animal and plant protein-can grow on almost any organic substrate including wast products like whey.
93
what are the advantages of using microorganisms to make SCP?
```
faster
high protein
production can be increased or decreased (demand)
animal welfare
healthy
easy GM to alter protein
remove waste
independent of seasons
not much land
```
94
what are the disadvantages of using microorganisms to make SCP?
```
distaste
isolation of protein
purification
remove nucleic acids
deficient in methionine
infection
palatability
```
95
what conditions must be controlled in a fermenter?
```
temperature
nutrients
o2 availability
pH
conc of producr
```
96
why does temp need to be controlled in a fermenter?
too hot=denaturing of enzymes
| too cold=limited growth
97
why does o2 need to be controlled in a fermenter?
most microorganisms respire aerobically
98
what must happen before using a fermenter?
must be sterilised using superheated steam.
99
in a fermenter what controls pressure?
pressure vent prevents any gas buildup
100
in a fermenter what controls o2?
sterile air comes in from the air inlet which contains o2.
101
in a fermenter what regulates temperature?
water jacket
102
what does the electric probe do in a fermenter (zzzzzzz)
measures o2, pH, and temp levels
103
how does the air get into the mixture in a fermenter?
through air outlets -air bubbles out from rings mixing with mixture (sparging)
104
what are primary metabolites?
products synthesised by microorganism during normal metabolism
105
what does continuous culture do??
keeps microorganism growing at specific growth rate
106
what are secondary metabolites?
produced only when cells are placed under stress
107
what is asepsis?
ensuring sterile conditions are maintained.
108
if the conditions in a fermenter weren't aseptic, what would the unwanted microorganisms do?
compete w wanted ones for nutrients and space
reduce yield of useful products
spoil product
produce toxic chemicals
109
what type of metabolite is penicillin?
secondary
110
what type of culture is penicillin manufactured by?
batch
111
how was synthetic human insulin created?
GM bacteria
112
how was bacteria GM to produce insulin?
gene for human insulin combined w plasmid to act as vector-gene could be inserted into e.coli
113
what type of culture is insulin manufactured by?
continuous
114
what is bioremediation?
the use of microorganisms to clean soil and underground water on polluted sites.
115
what does bioremediation involve?
stimulating growth of suitable microbes that use contaminants as food source.
116
wHaT aRe tHe aDvAnTages of bioremediation?
natural
less labour
treatment in situ
low waste
117
what is bioremediation not useful for?
heavy metals like lead and cadmium
118
what is agar?
polysaccharide used to thicken medium into a gel
119
microorganisms are usually grown in what?
broth or agar
120
growing microorganisms on agar involves which 3 main steps?
1) sterilisation
2) inoculation
3) incubation
121
how is the growth medium sterilised?
heated in an autoclave
122
what are the three methods of inoculation?
streaking
seeding
spreading
haahhahaa
123
what does streaking involve?
wire inoculating loop used to transfer a drop of liquid medium onto surface of agar, then loop dragged across surface into a streak
124
what can a liquid broth be used for?
to measure the growth rate of a microorganism population
125
what is a closed culture?
culture which has no exchange of nutrients or gases with the external environment
126
in the early part of population growth how quickly does the population grow and why?
slowly- small pop+they're adjusting to their new environment
127
what are the stages of growth of microorganisms in a closed culture?
lag phase
log (exponential) phase
stationary phase
death (decline) phase
128
what happens during the log phase?
organisms have adjusted to their environments and grow and reproduce quickly
129
what happen during the stationary phase?
death rate=reproductive rate
| organisms use up nutrients and produce waste
130
what is an immobilised enzyme?
an enzyme that's held in place and not free to diffuse through the solution
131
wHaT aRe the aDvAnTaGeS of immobilised enzymes?
lower extraction costs
easily reused
continuous process easier
protects enzymes from extreme conditions
132
wHaT aRe tHe diSadVaNtAgEs of immobilised enzymes?
setting up = expensive
| slower-enzymes less active
133
what are the methods used to immobilise enzymes?
adsorption
covalent bonding
entrapment
membrane separation
134
what does glucose isomerase/xylose isomerase do?
converts glucose to fructose
135
what is glucose isomerase/xylose isomerase used for?
to produce HFCS (high fructose corn syrup).
136
what does penicillin acylase/penicillin amidase do?
makes semi synthetic penicillin.
137
what does lactase do?
converts lactose to glucose and galactose.
138
what is lactase used for?
producing lactose free milk.
139
what is aminoacylase used for?
producing pure L-amino acids by removing the acyl group from the nitrogen of an N-acyl-amino acid.
140
what are L-amino acids used for?
pharmaceutical and agrochemical synthesis
| food additives
141
what does glucoamylase do?
converts dextrins to glucose
142
what processes is glucoamylase used in?
converting starch pulp to alcohol-biofuel production
| making high fructose corn syrup.
143
what does nitrile hydratase do?
converts nitriles to amides.
144
what are the uses of nitrile hydratase?
products used in:
treatment of water
paper making
plastics
145
what are some immobilised enzymes used in industrial processes?
```
glucose isomerase (xylose isomerase)
penicillin amidase (penicillin acylase)
lactase
aminoacylase
glucoamylase
nitrile hydratase
```
146
WHY WOULDNT U GROW BACTERIA AT 35 DEGREES
IT ENCOURAGES THE GROWTH OF HUMAN PATHOGENS.
147
how do bulbs carry out vegetative propagation?
new daughter bulbs grow from the lateral bud.
148
WHEN DOING A BACTERIA EXPERIMENT WHY WOULD U HAVE A FLASK W NO BACTERIA IN IT (3 POINTS)
TO ACT AS A CONTROL
TO CHECK GROWTH WAS ONLY AFFECTED BY THE INDEPENDENT FACTOR
TO CHECK FOR CONTAMINATION
