BIOPSYCHOLOGY

Question 1

What is a neuron?

Answer 1

Neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals in the nervous system.

Question 2

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? and describe location

Answer 2

Frontal Lobe (front top), Parietal Lobe, (top back) Occipital Lobe (bottom back), Temporal Lobe.(front bottom)

Question 3

What are the four areas of cortical specialisation in the brain? and where are they located

Answer 3

Motor Cortex - Voluntary Movement. (back of frontal lobe)
Somatosensory Cortex - Information related to the skin. (front of parietal lobe)
Visual Cortex - Information from the eye - left visual field to right cortex. (in occipital lobe)
Auditory Cortex - anaylsesspeech based information.(temporal lobe)

Question 4

Outline the contribution of scientists such as Brocca and Wernicke to our understanding of the brain.

Answer 4

Established the areas of language in the brain.
Broca’s area = left frontal lobe - Speech production.
Wernicke’s area = left temporal lobe - Speech understanding / coherence.

Question 5

What happens when Broca’s area is damaged

Answer 5

Broca’s aphasia characterised by slow speech and lacking fluency - difficulty finding words and name objects

Question 6

what happens when wernickes area damaged

Answer 6

wernickes aphasia so will often produce nonsense words (neologisms)

Question 7

Outline 2 studies in which localisation of function in the brain has been investigated.

Answer 7

Peterson et al. (1988). Used brain scans to show how Wernicke’s areas was active during a listening task and Broca’s area during a reading task → different functions.

Tulving 1944 - showed that episodic and semantic memory are located in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.

Question 8

Outline a a case study evidence for localisation

Answer 8

Phineas Gage -Steel rod through the brain removing a lot of the left frontal lobe. Change of personality → turned rude, quick tempered, aggressive. Suggests localisation in the brain.

Question 9

What is meant by plasticity and why does it challenge the idea of localisation?

Answer 9

When the brain becomes damaged and a particular function has been lost, the brain appears to be able to reorganise itself to recover function. Basically another part of the brain takes over the function. The brain physically adjusts the location of function if damage occurs, which suggests that localisation is not fixed to specific areas. The brain is working as a whole unit rather than specific areas for specific functions

Question 10

What is meant by plasticity?

Answer 10

Brains ability to change and adapt because of experience

Brain creates new neural pathways in response to changing experience

Question 11

Outline research into plasticity

Answer 11

Maquire et al. (2000) - london taxi drivers. More grey matter in their posterior hippocampus ( was larger) in comparison to non taxi drivers → spatial and navigational skills. The “knowledge” (complex test) - Brain structure is altered w/ experience

Question 12

How has research into brain plasticity helps us in the ‘real world’?

Answer 12

Neurorehabilitation. Physiotherapy following illness or injury e.g. motor therapy and electrical stimulation of the brain to counter negative effects and deficits in motor /cognitive functions

Question 13

How has research into brain plasticity helps us in the ‘real world’?

Answer 13

Neurorehabilitation. Physiotherapy following illness or injury e.g. motor therapy and electrical stimulation of the brain to counter negative effects and deficits in motor /cognitive functions

Question 14

What is meant by functional recovery?

Answer 14

Healthy brain areas take over functions of areas damaged or destroyed after trauma.

Question 15

What happens in the brain during functional recovery.

Answer 15

Neural unmasking where dormant synapses open connections to compensate for damaged areas of the brain
Secondary neural pathways are activated to carry out certain functions.
Axonal sprouting. Growth of new nerve endings which connect with undamaged nerve cells to create new pathways.
New blood vessels.
Recruitment of similar areas. E.g. Broca’s area damaged on the left side, the equivalent would be recruited on the right.

Question 16

Outline research into functional recovery

Answer 16

Hubel and Wiesel
Sewed one eye of a kitten shut and analysed the cortical responses
Visual cortex associated with the shut eye did not remain idle but processed info from open eye
Loss of function leads to compensatory activity in brain ( recruitment of similar areas)

Question 17

Outline research into functional recovery

Answer 17

Hubel and Wiesel
Sewed one eye of a kitten shut and analysed the cortical responses
Visual cortex associated with the shut eye did not remain idle but processed info from open eye
Loss of function leads to compensatory activity in brain ( recruitment of similar areas)

Question 18

Negatives of functional recovery and plasticity

Answer 18

Biologically reductionist

Limits understanding

Question 19

Negatives of functional recovery and plasticity

Answer 19

Biologically reductionist

Limits understanding

Question 20

What is meant by hemispheric lateralisation

Answer 20

the idea that behaviours are controlled by one particular hemisphere

Question 21

Outline the key study conducted by Sperry (1968). Include the aim, procedure and 2 key findings.

Answer 21

Sperry wanted to demonstrate the two hemispheres were specialised for certain functions and could perform tasks individually - studied group of epileptics who had the corpus callous cut (can’t share info)

Image projected to patients RVF (processed by LH) and other to LVF (processed by RH)

RVF: patients can easily describe what is seen
LVF: nothing there ( no language centres in RH)

Objects shown to LVF
Couldn’t name but could select a matching object using left hand
Could select an object associated with image presented

Couldn’t verbally identify but could understand and use RH To select corresponding object

Question 22

Briefly evaluate the methodology used in split-brain research.

Answer 22

Standardised procedure (same for every person) 
Participants started at a fixed point with one eye for only 0.1 seconds so no time to move eyes over WELL CONTROLLED

Question 23

Issues with split brain research

Answer 23

Generalisation - can’t be widely accepted as split brain patients are an unusual sample and only 11 people took part with history of seizures
Limits extent to which findings can be generalised to norma brains reducing validity of conclusions

Question 24

The conclusions drawn from Sperry’s research are key contributors to our understanding of brain processes. Explain these conclusions.

Answer 24

Shows lateralised brain functions as left hemisphere is analytical and verbal and right is adept at spatial tasks and music

Question 25

Explain why the differences in function may be overstated.

Answer 25

Sperry oversimplies and overstates difference in function as many behaviours associated with one hemisphere can be perofomred by the other when required - too simplistic

Question 26

Name 4 ways of investigating the brain

Answer 26

fMRI, EEG, ERG, Post-mortem

Question 27

Outline fMRIs as a way of investigating the brain.

Answer 27

measures blood flow and changes in blood oxygenation by creating a moving 3D map of the brain
More active brain area used most energy (oxygen n glucose) so more blood flow directed to this area
Map shows most active part of brain n therefore what must be involved in particular mental processes

Question 28

Outline one strength and one limitation of fMRI scans as a way of identifying localisation of function in the brain.

Answer 28

strength: good spatial resolution compared to EEG
- can detect the smallest features like 1-2mm
- great accuracy in determining activity of different specific brain regions
limitation: inability to show causation
- only shows and measures changes not direct cause of neural activity
- valid conclusions can’t be made

Question 29

Outline EEGs as a way of investigating the brain.

Answer 29

measures electrical activity in brain through electrodes attached to scalp
charges are detected by electrodes that are graphed over a time period

Question 30

Explain one strength and one limitation of EEGs.

Answer 30

strength: good temporal resolution in relation to fMRI
accuracy of scanner in relation to time and how quickly scanner can detect change (1-4secs)
limitation: low spatial resolution so can only detect superficial areas- not good for localisation

Question 31

Explain one strength and one limitation of EEGs.

Answer 31

strength: good temporal resolution in relation to fMRI
accuracy of scanner in relation to time and how quickly scanner can detect change (1-4secs)
limitation: low spatial resolution so can only detect superficial areas- not good for localisation

Question 32

What is meant by a biological rhythm

Answer 32

Periodic activity governed by internal biological clocks ( endogenous pacemakers,) which are influenced by external environmental factors ( exogenous zeitgebers,) to control these periodic changes.

Question 33

What is meant by a circadian rhythm? Give an example.

Answer 33

A 24 hour cycle which is reset by levels of light. An example is the sleep/wake cycle.
Light provides the primary input to this system, acting as the external cue for sleeping or waking.
Light is first detected by the eye, which then sends messages concerning the level of brightness to the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN).
The SCN then uses this information to coordinate the activity of the entire circadian system.

A biological clock is left to its own devices without the influence of external stimuli this is free running

Question 34

Outline the aim, procedure and findings from an study into circadian rhythms

Answer 34

Siffre spent long periods in dark caves to examine the effects of free running biological rhythms - 2 months in 1960s and 6 months in 1970s

• in each study his free running rhythm settled down to about usual 24 hours (25 hours)
• He did have a regular sleep/wake cycle

Question 35

Outline 1 other piece of research into circadian rhythms other than Siffre’s study.

Answer 35

Aschoff and Wever - participants spent 4 weeks in WW2 bunker deprived of natural light

All but one (who’s extended to 29 hrs) displayed a rhythm of 24-25 hrs

Both Siffres and this study suggest ‘nature” sleep/wake cycle is slightly longer that 24 hrs

Question 36

Outline 2 practical applications of research into circadian rhythms.

Answer 36

1. Worker Productivity
   - Boivin found shift workers experience a lapse of concentration around 6am so accidents more likely
   -Thus research may have economic implications in terms of how to best manage worker productivity
2. Drug Treatments
   - C Rhythms co-ordinate body basic processes with implications for action of drugs on body n how well they are absorbed
   _ Gudielines have been developed for timing of dosing for range of drugs inc chemotherapy drugs
   - Research has medical benefits

Question 37

Outline two reasons why the results of research into circadian rhythms lacks generalisability.

Answer 37

1. Studies use small groups so may not be representative of wider population
2. Individual differences / cycles can vary from 13-65 hrs meaning studies may not fully represent individual differences within the population

Question 38

What is meant by a circadian rhythm? Give an example.

Answer 38

A 24 hour cycle which is reset by levels of light. An example is the sleep/wake cycle.
Light provides the primary input to this system, acting as the external cue for sleeping or waking.

A biological clock is left to its own devices without the influence of external stimuli this is free running

Question 39

Outline two reasons why the results of research into circadian rhythms lacks generalisability.

Answer 39

1. Studies use small groups so may not be representative of wider population
2. Individual differences / cycles can vary from 13-65 hrs meaning studies may not fully represent individual differences within the population
   Duffy et al. (2001) found that ‘morning people’ prefer to rise and go to bed early (about 6 am and 10 pm) whereas ‘evening people’ prefer to wake and go to bed later (about 10 am and 1 am).

Question 40

What is an infradian rhythm?

Answer 40

Infradian rhythms last longer than 24 hours and can be weekly, monthly or annually.

Question 41

whats an example of an infradian rhythm and explain why

Answer 41

Female menstrual cycle - lasts about 28 days vulation occurs roughly halfway through the cycle when oestrogen levels are at their highest, and usually lasts for 16-32 hours.
After the ovulatory phase, progesterone levels increase in preparation for the possible implantation of an embryo in the uterus.

Question 42

Outline some research into infradian rhythms.

Answer 42

Russell et al (1980) found that the menstrual cycle can be synchronized by exogenous cues, which explains the phenomenon that women who live together often have synchronized cycles.
To demonstrate this the researchers used volunteer participants who did not live together, and transferred sweat from the upper lips of the participants to each other with the results that their cycles quickly became synchronized.
They hypothesized that sweat must contain a pheromone, or chemical messenger, that resets the menstrual cycle.

Question 43

What is seasonal affective disorder?

Answer 43

depressive disorder with a seasonal pattern

symptoms triggered during winter months when number of daylight hours becomes shorted

Question 44

why is SAD a infradian cycle

Answer 44

it is circannual ( yearly)
Psychologists claim that melatonin, which is secreted by the pineal gland during the night, is partly responsible.
The lack of light during the winter months results in a longer period of melatonin secretion, which has been linked to the depressive symptoms.

Question 45

What is an ultradian rhythm? Give an example.

Answer 45

Ultradian rhythms last fewer than 24 hours and can be found in the pattern of human sleep.
This cycle consists of five stages.
Stage 1 /2 : light steep and can be easily woken ( alpha waves) to (beta waves) as sleep gets deeper
Stage 3/4: Deep sleep, slow waves ( delta) and difficult to wake
Stage 5: REM rapid eye movement = fast jerky actions of eyes - body paralysed yet brain activity speeds up (dreams)
repeated every 90 mins

Question 46

Problems with studying sleep cycles

Answer 46

Individual Differences: The problem with studying sleep cycles is the differences observed in people, which make investigating patterns difficult.
Tucker et al. (2007) found significant differences between participants in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 (just before REM sleep).

Question 47

Explain why the menstrual cycle has been suggested to have an evolutionary basis.

Answer 47

May have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and become pregnant together so offspring could be cared for collectively increasing chances of survival

Question 48

Evaluate studies into menstrual synchronisation in terms of methodology.

Answer 48

some argue there are too many favours that may change a women cycle - so synchronisation is by chance - so suggests these studies lack validity

Question 49

Outline what is meant by endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers - refer to examples in your answer.

Answer 49

Biological rhythms are regulated by endogenous pacemakers, which are the body’s internal biological clocks,
exogenous zeitgebers, which are external cues, including light, that help to regulate the internal biological clocks.

Question 50

Name and describe an endogenous pacemaker.

Answer 50

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which lies in the hypothalamus, is the main endogenous pacemaker (or master clock).
It controls other biological rhythms, as it links to other areas of the brain responsible for sleep and arousal.
The SNC sends signals to the pineal gland, which leads to an increase in the production of melatonin at night, helping to induce sleep.
The SCN and pineal glands work together as endogenous pacemakers; however, their activity is responsive to the external cue of ligh

Question 51

Outline some research into the importance of endogenous pacemakers on biological rhythms.

Answer 51

DeCoursey et al destroyed SCN connections in brains of 30 chipmunks and returned to natural habitat for 80 days
There sleep/wake cycle dispapeared and many were killed by predators

Question 52

What is an exogenous zeitgeber?

Answer 52

environmental events that are responsible for resetting the biological clock of an organism.

Question 53

Name and describe 2 exogenous zeitgebers.

Answer 53

Light
The SNC contains receptors that are sensitive to light and this external cue is used to synchronise the body’s internal organs and glands.
Melanopsin, which is a protein in the eye, is sensitive to light and carries the signals to the SCN to set the 24-hour daily body cycle
Social Cues
social cues, such as mealtimes, can also act as zeitgebers and humans can compensate for the lack of natural light, by using social cues instead

Question 54

One limitation of endogenous pacemakers n exogenous zeitgebers

Answer 54

BIOLOGICALLY REDUCTIONIST For example, the behaviourist approach would suggest that bodily rhythms are influenced by other people and social norms, i.e. sleep occurs when it is dark because that is the social norm and it wouldn’t be socially acceptable for a person to conduct their daily routines during the night.
The research discussed here could be criticised for being reductionist as it only considers a singular biological mechanism and fails to consider the other widely divergent viewpoints.

Question 55

One limitation of endogenous pacemakers n exogenous zeitgebers

Answer 55

Both pacemakers n Zeitgebers interact so total isolation such as suffer is very rare and present an unrealistic view of how the system works