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Biology of Human Life > Nervous system > Flashcards

Nervous system Flashcards

1
Q

Ecstasy

A

a drug that can make you feel good for a short time , the main ingredient is MDMA an amphetamine like drug that interferes with the function of seretonin in the brain. excess seretonin can relieve anxiety, sharpen the senses, and make you feel socially accepted, it can also kill. How we function depends on if we nurture or abuse our nervous system.

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2
Q

Nervous system

A

its role is to detect and integrate info about external and internal conditions and carry out responses

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3
Q

Drug use can lead to addiction

A

as the body builds up a tolerance to the drug larger and more frequent doses are needed for the same effect this reflects physical drug dependence.

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4
Q

Psychological drug dependence ( habituation)

A

develops when a user begins to crave the feelings associated with using a drug and cant function without it. Habituation and tolerance are evidence of addiction

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5
Q

Neurons

A

form the basis of the systems communication network

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6
Q

Sensory neurons

A

receptors for specific sensory stimuli(signals)

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7
Q

Inter neurons

A

the brain and spinal chord integrate input and output signals

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8
Q

Motor neurons

A

send info from integrator to muscle or gland cells (effecters)

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9
Q

Neuron functional zones

A

Neurons form extended cells with several zones:

The cell body, dendrites, the trigger zone (axon hillock), conducting zone(axon), and output zones( the axons ending).

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10
Q

The cell body

A

has slender extensions called dendrites. The cell body and dendrites form the input zone for receiving info

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11
Q

The trigger zone (axon hillock)

A

leads to the axon which is the neurons conducting zone

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12
Q

Output zones

A

The axons endings where messages ares sent to other cells

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13
Q

composition of the nervous system

A

10%=neurons 90%= support cells called neuroglia or glia

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14
Q

Neurons function..

A

well in communication b/c they are excitable( produce electrical signals in response to stimuli)

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15
Q

Properties of neurons plasma membrane

A

allow it to carry signals. Plasma membrane prevents charged substances (K+ and Na+ ions) from moving freely across but both ions can move through channels. some channel proteins are always open and others are gated. In a resting neuron gated sodium channels are closed; sodium doesn’t pass through the membrane but potassium does. sodium diffuses into the cell potassium diffuses out. The diff. across the membrane that forms because of K+ and Na+ gradient results in a resting membrane potential of -70 millivolts. (Cytoplasmic side of the membrane is negative)

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16
Q

Action potentials=Nerve impulses

A

Sufficient signals at the input zone of a resting neuron can trigger reversal of the voltage diff. across the membrane. The signal opens gated sodium channels allowing Na+ to rush into the neuron. The internal charge near the membrane becomes less negative, stimulating more channels to open (positive feedback). When the voltage diff. crosses a key threshold level of stimulation, an action potential(nerve impulse) occurs. Thresholds can only be reached in areas of the neuron where there are voltage-sensitive sodium channels. Stimuli must be strong enough to trigger the potential. The action potential is self propagating and moves away from the stimulation sites They can do this b/c the changes to the membrane potential don’t lose strength. A neuron cant “fire’ up again until iron pumps restore its resting potential. By diffusion some potassium ions will always leak out of the cell and some sodium ions will always leak in.

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17
Q

The sodium-Potassium pump

A

uses ATP to actively pump potassium ions and sodium ions out of the neuron to keep the concentration of sodium ions higher outside, ready for another action potential to form

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18
Q

Action Potentials are..

A

all or nothing events. One a positive feedback cycle starts nothing stops the full “spiking” of a potential. If threshold is not reached however the membrane disturbance will subside when the stimulus is removed. When the action potential is terminated the sodium gates close, potassium gates open and the sodium-potassium pump become operational to fully restore the resting potential.

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19
Q

Chemical synapse: communication junctions

A

Action potentials can stimulate the release of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters diffuse across a chemical synapse, the junction between a neuron and an adjacent cell. The neuron that releases the transmitter is called the pre-synaptic cell. In response to an action potential gated calcium channels open and allow calcium ions to enter the neuron from the synapse. Calcium causes the synaptic vescicles to fuse together with the membrane and release the transmitter substance into the synapse. The transmitter binds to the receptors on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell. Neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit a recieving cell.

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20
Q

How does a postsynaptic cell respond to a transmitter?

A

It depends on the type and amount of transmitter, the receptors it has and the types of channels in its input zone.

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21
Q

Excitatory signals

A

drive the membrane towards the action potential

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22
Q

Inhibitory signals

A

prevent an action potential

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23
Q

Neurotransmitters include…

A

Acetylcholine(ACh), Serotonin, nitric oxide(NO).

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24
Q

Acetylcholine(ACh)

A

can excite or inhibit target cells in the brain, spinal chord, glands, and muscles

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25
Q

Serotonin

A

acts on brain cells to govern sleeping , sensory perception, temperture regulation, and emotional states.

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26
Q

Nitric Oxide (NO)

A

a gas that controls blood vessel dilation in penis erection

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27
Q

Neuromodulators..

A

can magnify or reduce the effects of a neurotransmitter ex: natural pain killers(endorphins). The release of endorphins prevents sensations of pain from being recognized. They may also play a role in memory, learning, and sexual behavior.

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28
Q

Competing signals are..

A

“summed up”. Excitatory and Inhibitory signals compete at the input zone. An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) depolarizes the membrane to bring it closer to threshold. An inhibitory postsynaptic potential(IPSP) either drives the membrane away from threshold by a hyperpolarizing effect or maintains the membrane potential at the resting level.

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29
Q

synaptic integration

A

competing signals that reach an input zone of a neuron at the same time are summed; summation of signals determines whether a signal is suppressed, reinforced, or sent onward to other body cells.

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30
Q

Neurotransmitters molecules

A

must be removed from the synapse and synaptic cleft to discontinue stimulation.

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31
Q

1st method of removal

A

some neurotransmitter molecules diffuse out of the cleft

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32
Q

2nd method of removal

A

enzymes break down the transmitters

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33
Q

3rd method of removal

A

membrane transport proteins actively pump neurotransmitter molecules back into the presynaptic cell

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34
Q

Information pathways

A

Nerves are long distance lines. Signals between the brain or spinal chord and body regions travel via nerves. Axons of sensory neurons, motor neurons, or both, are bundled together in a nerve.

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35
Q

Nerve tracts

A

bundles of inter neuron axons within the brain and spinal chord

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36
Q

axons…

A

are covered by a myelin sheath derived from schwann cells. Each section of the sheath is seperated from adjacent ones by a region where the axon membrane, along with gated sodium channels is exposed. Action Potentials jump from node to node(saltatory conduction) such jumps are fast and efficient. There are no schwann cells in the central nervous sytem; here processes from oligodendrocytes from the sheaths of myelinated axons.

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37
Q

Reflex arcs

A

are the simplest nerve pathways. A reflex is a simple stereotyped movement in response to a stimulus. In the simplest reflex arc , sensory neurons synapse directly with motor neurons; an example is the stretch reflex which contracts a muscle after that muscle has been stretched. In most reflex pathways the sensory neurons also interact with several interneurons, which excite or inhibit motor neurons as needed for a coordinated response.

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38
Q

In the brain and spinal chords,,,

A

neurons interact in circuits. flow of the nervous sytem: sensory neurons—>spinal chord and brain—->inter neurons—->motorneurons. Inter neurons in the spinal and brain are grouped into blocks which in turn form circuits; blocks receive signals, integrate them, and then generate new ones.

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39
Q

Divergent circuits

A

fan out from one block into another

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40
Q

other circuits

A

funnel down to just a few neurons

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41
Q

Reverberating circuits

A

neurons repeat signals upon themselves

42
Q

The central nervous system is

A

composed of the brain and spinal chord; all of the inter neurons are contained in this system

43
Q

afferent nerves

A

Nerves that carry sensory input to the CNS

44
Q

Efferent Nerves

A

carry signals away from the CNS

45
Q

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

includes all the nerves that carry signals to and from the brain and spinal chord to the rest of the body. The PNS is further divided into the somatic and autonomic subdivisions. The PNS consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves. At some sites cell bodies from several neurons cluster together in ganglia.

46
Q

Major expressways: Peripheral nerves and the spinal chord

A

The (PNS) consists of somatic and autonomic nerves

47
Q

Somatic nerves

A

carry signals related to the movement of the head, trunk, and limbs, signals move to and from skeletal muscles for voluntary control

48
Q

Autonomic nerves

A

carry signals between internal organs and other structures; signals move to and from smooth muscles, cardiac muscle,and glands(involuntary control)

49
Q

The cell bodies of..

A

preganglionic neurons lie within the CNS and extend their axons to ganglia outside the CNS. Postganglionic neurons receive the messages from the axons of the preganglionic cells and pass the impulses on the effectors. Autonomic nerves are divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves which normally work antagonistically towards each other.

50
Q

Parasympathetic nerves

A

slow down body activity when the body is not under stress

51
Q

sympathetic nerves

A

increase over all body activity during times of stress, excitement, or danger; they also call on the horomone norepinephrine to increase the fight or flight response.

52
Q

rebound effect

A

sympathetic activity drops parasympathetic activity might go up

53
Q

Spinal chord

A

patheay between PNS and brain. lies within closed channel made by bones and vertebrael coloumn. Signals move up/down spinal chord in nerve tracts. myelin sheaths of tracts are white so =white matter. center butterfly shaped area has dendrites,cell bodies, interneurons, and neurologia cells = gray matter.

54
Q

meninges

A

spinal chord/ brain are covered with 3 tough membranes. Spinal chord is a pathway for signal travel between PNS and brain and is the center fro controlling some reflex actions.

55
Q

Spinal reflexes

A

come from neural connections made in the spinal chord and dont need input from brain even though the event happens there.

56
Q

Autonomic reflexes

A

ex: bladder emptying. responsibility of spinal chord

57
Q

The brain

A

spinal cord merges with bodies control center-the brain. protected by bones and meninges. Tough outer membrane is dura mater its a folded double matter that divides the brant into its left and right halves. Thinner middle layer is arachnoid. The pia mater wraps brain and spinal chord as the innermost layer.

58
Q

Brain continued

A

The meninges enclose a fluid filled spaces that cushion the brain. brain is divided into a hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. Hindbrain and midbrain from the brainstem are in charge of many simple reflexes.

59
Q

Hindbrain

A

medulla oblongata has influence over respiration, heart rate, swallowing, coughing, and sleep/wake responses. The cerebullum acts as reflex center for keeping posture and coordinating limbs.
The pons “bridge” has nerve tracts that pass between nerve centers.

60
Q

Mid Brain

A

coordinates reflex responses to sight and sound . has gray roof matter, the tectum, where visual and sensory input coverages before being sent to higher brain centers.

61
Q

ForeBrain

A

most developed part of the brain in humans. cerebum integrates sensory input and selected motor response;olfactory bulbs deal with smell. Thalamus relays and coordinates sensory signals through clusters of neuron cell bodies called nuclei; Parkinsons disease happens when the function of basal nuclei in the thalamus is disrupted. Hypothalamus monitors internal organs and influences response to thirst, hunger, and sex thus controlling homeostasis.

62
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

fills cavities and canals in the brain. brain and spinal cord are surrounded by Cerebralspinal fluid(CSF) which fills ventricles and canals within the brain.

63
Q

Blood brain barrier

A

mechanism that controls which substances will pass to the fluid and then to the neurons. Capilaries of the brain are less permeable than other capillaries, making materials pass through the cell, not around them. Lipid soluble substances like alcohol, nicotine, and drugs diffuse fast through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.

64
Q

closer look at the Cerebrum

A

theres 2 cerebral hemispheres. The human cerebral hemisphere is divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres which communicate with each other by means of the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere can function seperately; the right responds to the left vice versa. The left hemisphere deals with mainly speech, analytical skills, and mathematics; nonverbal skills and other creative activities. The cerebral cortex is gray matter, divided into lobes by folds and fissures; white matter and basal nuclei( gray matter in the thalamus) underlie the surface. Each hemisphere is divided into frontal, occipital, temperal, and parietal lobes.

65
Q

The cerebral cortex

A

controls thought and other concious behavior

66
Q

Motor areas

A

found in the frontal lobe of each hemisphere

67
Q

Motor cortex

A

controls coordinated movements of the skeletal muscles

68
Q

The premotor cortex

A

associated with learned patterns or motor skills

69
Q

Brocas area

A

involved in speech

70
Q

frontal eye field

A

controls voluntary eye movements

71
Q

Sensory areas

A

found in the parietal lobe. primary somatosensory cortex is the main receiving center for sensory input from the skin and joints. Primary cortical area deals with taste.

72
Q

Primary visual cortex

A

receives sensory input found eyes found in occipital lobe.

73
Q

Primary cortical areas

A

In each temperal lobe sound and odor perception arises in this area

74
Q

Association areas

A

occupy all parts of the cortex except the primary motor and sensory regions. each area integrates, analyzes, and responds to many inputs.

75
Q

Neural activity

A

most complex in the prefrontal cortex. area of the brain that allows for complex learning, intellect, and personality.

76
Q

The limbic system

A

emotions and parts of memory are governed here which has several brain regions. Parts of thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus contribute to produce our ‘gut’ reactions.

77
Q

Memory

A

how the brain stores and receives info

78
Q

Short term memory

A

lasts from seconds to hours and is limited to little info

79
Q

Long term memory

A

more permanent and seems limitless

80
Q

Facts

A

names or faces, are forgotten or stored in long term memory where they can be reacalled by asociation

81
Q

Skills

A

can only be recalled by doing them

82
Q

Amnesia

A

loss of fact memory; the severity of loss depends on the extent of brain damage but amnesia doesnt prevent someone from learning new skills

83
Q

Consiousness

A

ranges form being wide awake and alert to drowsiness, sleep, and coma. The constant electrical activity of the brain can be measured by a electroncephalogram (EEG). PET scans can show the precise location of brain activity

84
Q

Reticular formation

A

Neurons of this control the changing levels of consciousness by releasing serotonin from sleep enters the neural network. High serotonin levels trigger drowsiness and sleep.

85
Q

Two major stages of sleep

A

slow wave,” normal sleep” and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.

86
Q

Parkinson Disease

A

characterized by death of neurons in the thalamus that usually make dopamine and norepinephrine needed for normal muscle function.

87
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

progressive degeneration of brain neurons while also having an abnormal buildup of amyloid protein leading to memory loss.

88
Q

Meningitis

A

fatal inflammatory disease caused by a virus or bacterial infection of the meninges covering the brain and/or spinal chord.

89
Q

Encephalitis

A

very dangerous inflammation of the brain often caused by a virus

90
Q

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

A

autoimmune disease that result in the destruction of the myelin sheath of Neurons in the CNS

91
Q

Concussion

A

result from a severe blow to the head resulting in blurred vision and brief loss of consciousness

92
Q

Spinal cord damage

A

can result in loss of sensation, muscle weakness, or paralysis below the site of injury

93
Q

Epilepsy

A

a seizure disorder, often inherited but also caused by brain injury, birth trauma, or other assaults on the brain

94
Q

Headaches

A

happen when the brain registers tension in muscles or blood vessels of the face,neck, and scalp as pain

95
Q

Migrane headaches

A

extremely painful and can be triggered by hormonal changes, fluorescent lights, and certain foods, particularly in women.

96
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

exert their influence on brain regions that govern state of consciousness and behavior. The 4 categories of this type of drug are stimulants, depressants, analgesics, and hallucinogens

97
Q

stimulants

A

increase alertness or activity for a time and then depress you (caffeine, cocaine, nicotine, and amphetamines)

98
Q

Depressants

A

(alcohol) depress brain activity, limit judgement, and interfere with coordinated movement; blood alcohol concentration (BAC) measures alcohol in the blood to determine the level of intoxication

99
Q

Analgesics

A

(pain relievers) include morphine and OxyContin, a synthetic derivative; analgesics block pain signals and some may produce euphoria

100
Q

Hallucinogens

A

ex: marijuana act like depressants at low levels but might also skew perception and performance of complex tasks

Biology of Human Life (6 decks)

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