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Biology of Human Life > Sensory systems > Flashcards

Sensory systems Flashcards

1
Q

Private eyes

A

Iris scanning is one of the newest security techniques. each persons unique arrangement of smooth muscle fibers in the iris of the eye must be recorded in an electronic database. a camera compares the iris to the database.

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2
Q

sensory system

A

a stimulus activates a receptor which converts it to an action potential that travels to the brain where it triggers sensation or perception

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3
Q

Stimulus

A

any form of energy that activates receptor endings of a sensory neuron

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4
Q

Sensations

A

conscious responses to the stimuli

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5
Q

Perception

A

understanding of what sensations mean

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6
Q

six major categories of sensory receptors

A

Mechanoreceptors, Thermoreceptors, Nocicreceptors, Chemo recptors, osmoreceptors, and Photoreceptors

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7
Q

Mechano recepters

A

detect changes in pressure, position, or acceleration

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8
Q

Thermorecepters

A

detect heat or cold

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9
Q

Nocicreceptors

A

( pain receptors) detect tissue damage

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10
Q

Chemorecepters

A

detect ions or molecules

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11
Q

Osmorecepters

A

detect changes in water volume (solute concentration) in surrounding fluid

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12
Q

Photoreceptors

A

detect energy of visible light

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13
Q

Action potentials..

A

all are the same the brain decides the nature of a given stimulus based on which nerves are signalling, the frequency of the action potential generated and number of axons responding

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14
Q

Specific sensory areas

A

interpret action potentials in specific ways. strong signals make receptors fire action potentials more often and longer. Stronger stimuli recruit more sensory receptors.

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15
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

diminishing response to an ongoing stimulus

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16
Q

Somatic sensations

A

occur when receptor signals from body surfaces reach the somatosensory cortex in the cerebrum. Receptors near the body surface sense touch, pressure, and more. Sensations of touch,pressure, cold, warmth, and pain are discerned near the body surface by receptors whose number vary by body region

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17
Q

Free nerve endings

A

the simplest receptors. thinly myelinated or unmyelinated dendrites of sensory neurons. one type coils around hair follicles to detect movement ; another detects chemicals

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18
Q

Encapsulated receptors

A

surrounded by a capsule of epithelial or connective tissue

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19
Q

Merkels discs

A

adapt slowly and are important for steady touch

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20
Q

Meissners corpuscles

A

respond to light touching

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21
Q

Ruffni endings

A

sensitive to steady touch and pressure

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22
Q

Pacinan corpuscles

A

sensitive to deep pressure and vibrations

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23
Q

more Mechano receptors

A

in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons, ligaments , and skin are in charge of awareness of the bodies position and limb movements

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24
Q

Pain

A

the perception of injury to some region of the body

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25
Q

Nociceptors ..

A

are subpopulations of free nerve endings distributed throughout the skin(somatic pain) and internal tissues(visceral pain). When cells are damaged they release chemicals to activate neighboring pain receptors. Pain receptors signal interneurons which release substance P

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26
Q

Substance P

A

allows for natural opiates called endorphins and enkephalins to be released to reduce pain perception

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27
Q

Referred Pain

A

a matter of perception. Much visceral pain is referred pain that is felt at some distance from the real stimulation point

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28
Q

Phantom pain

A

the sensation that amputees feel when they sense a missing part as if it were still there

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29
Q

Chemical senses

A

Taste and smell are chemical senses they begin at chemorecptors the signals traveling to the brain where they are percieved transferred to the limbic system and remembered

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30
Q

Gustation

A

sense of taste

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31
Q

taste buds

A

sensory organs that hold the taste receptors. locate on tongue, roof of mouth, and throat

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32
Q

5 general taste categories

A

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. The flavors of most foods are a combination of the 5 basic tastes plus sensory input from olfactory receptors in the nose

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33
Q

Olfaction

A

sense of smell

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34
Q

Olfactory receptors

A

in the olfactory epithelium of the nose detect water soluble or volatile substances-odors. The interpretation of smell is done by the olfactory bulbs located in the brain.

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35
Q

Olfaction

A

most ancients senses useful in survival as the receptors respond to molecules from food , mates, and predetors.

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36
Q

Vomeronasal organ

A

humans have this and its receptors can detect pheromones which are signalling molecules with roles in sexual attraction

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37
Q

Tasty morsel of sensory neurons

A

Receptors in taste buds associate the 5 main taste categories with particular “tastant” molecules that the brain interprets depending on the action potentials that come its way. Each taste bud has receptors that can respond to tastants of at least 2 if not all 5 of the taste classes. not all taste receptors are equally sensitive. bitter receptors are the most sensitive. Various tastants commingle together with odors into what we perceive as flavors

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38
Q

Sounds

A

waves of compressed air; the amplitude(loudness) and frequency(pitch) of sounds are detected by vibration sensitive mechanoreceptors deep in the ear. The ear gathers and sends sound signals right to the brain

39
Q

Outer ear

A

collects sound waves and turns them into vibrations which are amplified in the middle ear, vibrations are distinguished in the inner ear

40
Q

Inner ear structures

A

include semicircular canals for balance and cochlea where hearing takes place.

41
Q

Sensory hair cells

A

key to hearing. Vibrations are passed from the tympanic membrane to the middle ear bones(malleus, incus, stapes) on on to the oval window stetched across the entrance to the cochlea. Sound is amplified because the oval window is smaller than the tympanic membrane.

42
Q

The cochlea

A

has two compartments in its outer chamber( the scala vestibuli and scala tympani) which curl around an inner cochlear duct; all are fluid filled. Vibrations of the fluid filled window send pressure waves through the fluid to the bailsar membrane on the floor of the cochlear duct; resting on the membrane is the organ of Corti, which includes sensory hair cells. The tips of the hair cells rest against the jelly like tectorial membrane, vibration cause the cells to bend. Bending causes the release of neurotransmitters triggering action potentials that travel to the brain.

43
Q

Loudness

A

determined by the total number of cells that become stimulated; tone or “pitch” depends on the frequency of vibration

44
Q

The round window

A

at the far end of the cochlea serves as a release valve for pressure waves in the middle ear

45
Q

Eustachian tube

A

extending from the middle ear to the throat permits equalization of pressures

46
Q

Balance

A

sense of balance depends on messages from receptors in the eyes, skin, and joints as well as organs of equilibrium in the inner ear

47
Q

Vestibular apparatus

A

a closed system of fluid filled sacs and semicircular canals inside the ear; they are arranged to represent the 3 planes of space.

48
Q

Rotational receptors

A

located at the base of each semicircular canal; sensory hair cells project into a a jelly like capula. Movement of the head causes the hairs to bend within the jelly, generating action potentials. Rotation of the head decided dynamic equilibrium,

49
Q

Static equilibrium

A

the heads position in space is monitored by 2 sacs in the vestibular apparatus, the utricle and saccule. The sacs contain the otolith organs (hair cells) and otoliths (ear stones) which detect changes in orientation, acceleration, and deceleration

50
Q

Action potentials..

A

from different parts of the vestibular apparatus travel to the reflex centers in the brainstem. As the signals are integrated the brain orders compensatory movements needed to maintain postural balance.

51
Q

Motion sickness

A

extreme motion or continuous overstimulation of the hair cells of the vestibular aparatus can result in this

52
Q

Otitis media

A

painful inflammation of the middle ear often happens in children following a spread of respiratory infections; pus and /or fluid buildup as a result can cause the eardrum to rupture.

53
Q

Tinnitus

A

ringing or buzzing in the ears can be triggered by infection, aspirin consumption, or other unknown causes

54
Q

Deafness

A

a partial or complete loss of hearing; deafness may be congenital or due to aging , disease, or environmental causation

55
Q

what is loudness of sound measured in?

A

Loudness of sound is measured in decibels. quiet conversations happen at about 50 decibels. Damage starts when exposed to sounds btween 75-85 decibels. over an extended period of time.

56
Q

Vision

A

an awareness of the position, shape, brightness, distance, and movement of visual stimuli as detected by the sensory organs, the eyes.

57
Q

The eye

A

is built for photoreception. The eye has 3 layers sometimes called “tunics”

58
Q

Outer layer of eye

A

consists of the sclera and transparent cornea

59
Q

Middle layer of eye

A

consists of a choroid, ciliary body, and iris

60
Q

The inner layer

A

is the retina

61
Q

The sclera

A

“the white of the eye” protects the eye; the dark pigmentation choroid underlies the sclera and prevents light from scattering. Most of the blood vessels lie in the choroid.

62
Q

Iris

A

Behind the cornea is the iris. the hole in the center of the iris is the pupil, the entrance for light which can be adjusted depending on how much light is present.

63
Q

Lens

A

The lens is found behind the iris. the lens is attached to the ciliary body, a muscle functioning in the focusing of light. the lens focuses light on a layer of photoreceptor cells in the retina. A clear fluid (aqueous humor) bathes both sides of the lens; vitreous humor fills the chamber behind the lens.

64
Q

The retina

A

a thin layer of neural tissue at the back of the eyeball; axons from some of the neurons converge to form the optic nerve which sends signals to the visual cortex in the thalamus. The curved surface of the cornea bends incoming light so that light rays converge at the back of the eyeball; images appear upside down and backwards on the retina but are corrected in the brain.

65
Q

Eye muscle movement

A

fine tune the focus because of the bending of the light rays by the cornea, accommodation must be made by the lens so that the image is in focus of the retina. Accommodation is performed by the ciliary muscles attached to the lens

66
Q

Rod cells and cone cells

A

pigmented photoreceptors in the retinas basement layer. The retina processes signals from rods and cones

67
Q

Rod cells

A

sensitive to dim light and detect changes in light intensity. each rod has more than a billion molecules of rhodopsin ; this pigment can detect and respond to a few photons of light, letting us see in dim light

68
Q

cone cells

A

respond to high intensity light and contribute to sharp day time vision. Have different visual pigments ( red,green,or blue) absorption of photons also prevents release of neurotransmitters thus allowing signals to the brain

69
Q

Rhodopsin

A

made up of a protein(opsin) and a single molecule (cis-retinal) that is derived from vitamin A

70
Q

Photons..

A

of blue green light stimulate rhodopsin to change shape; shape change alters the distribution of ions across the rod cell membrane and slow down the release of an inhibitory transmitter. Without the inhibitor the neurons send visual signals to the brain.

71
Q

Visual acuity

A

the greatest in the fovea which is a depression located in the center of the retina that is densley packed with photoreceptors

72
Q

Signals flow..

A

from rods and cones to bipolar interneurons and then to ganglion cells, the axons of which form these optic nerves. before leaving the retina signals are dampened or enhanced by horizontal and amacrine cells.

73
Q

Receptive fields in the retina

A

the retinas surface is organized into receptive fields areas that influence the activity of individual sensory neurons. some respond to diff. in light, others to motion, color, or rapid changes in light intensity.

74
Q

signals move on to..

A

the visual cortex. the visual field stands for the part of the outside world a person actually sees. The right side of each retina gathers light from the left half of the visual field and the left side gathers light from the right half of the field. The optic nerve from each eye sends signals form the left visual field to the right cerebral hemisphere and signals from the right visual field to the left hemisphere. Axons of the optic nerves end in the lateral geniculate nucleus, from which they proceed to the brains visual cortex which has several visual fields sensitive to direction,movement,color, and so on; here is where final interpretations of the signals is made to produce.

75
Q

Disorders of the eye

A

Normal eye function can be disrupted by disease, injury, aging, and inherited abnormalities

76
Q

Color blindness

A

Total color blindness results when an individual has only one of the 3 types of cones.

77
Q

Red green colorblindness

A

the inability to distinguish red and green colors in dim light and sometimes bright light due to lack of green and red cone cells

78
Q

astigmatism

A

one or both corneas have uneven curvature and cannot bend light to the same focal point

79
Q

Nearsightedness (myopia)

A

happens when the image is focused in front of the retina

80
Q

Farsightedness (hyperopia)

A

due to an image focused behind the retina

81
Q

conjunctivitis

A

inflammation of the membrane lining the inside of the eyelids and covering the sclera.

82
Q

Trachoma

A

caused by the bacterium responsible for the sexually transmitted disease chlamydia, damages the eyeball and the conjunctiva possibly leading to blindness

83
Q

Herpes infection of the cornea

A

infection of various herpes simplex viruses and can also lead to blindness

84
Q

Malignant melanoma

A

eye cancer that develops in the choroid

85
Q

retinoblastoma

A

cancer of retina that occurs in infants

86
Q

Cataracts

A

the gradual clouding of the lens associated with aging and diabetes can completely block light from entering eyes

87
Q

Macular degeneration

A

age related degeneration of the retina

88
Q

Glaucoma

A

results from excess of fluid in the eyeball causing pressure on the retina

89
Q

Corneal transplant surgery

A

can replace defective corneas with plastic artificial corneas or donor corneas; cataracts may be corrected in a similar fashion by replacing the lens

90
Q

Lasik or Lasek surgery

A

surgeries that can be used to correct severe near sightedness

91
Q

Conductive keratoplasty (CK)

A

uses radiowaves to reshape the cornea

92
Q

Retinal detachment

A

can result from a physical blow to the head

93
Q

Laser coagulation

A

can be used to reattach the retina to the underlying choroid

Biology of Human Life (6 decks)

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