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Individual, Society and Culture > Slide Week 2 > Flashcards

Slide Week 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Human Development

A

The Study of changes in people from conception until death

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2
Q

What is Development

A
  • The sequence of age-related changes that occur as we move from birth through to death

Encapsulates:

  • Physical, emotional and cognitive changes
  • Nature vs Nurture
  • Continuity vs Transition
  • Person vs Situation
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3
Q

Continuity vs Transition

A

The study of what stays the same in our lives vs what is changing

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4
Q

Types of Developmental Research

A
  • Cross Sectional
  • Longitudinal
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5
Q

Cross Sectional Research

A
  • Studies various groups by category such as by age
  • studies done in present time
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6
Q

Longitudinal studies

A

Studies a group of people over time to see how attitudes or behaviour change

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7
Q

Advantages of Cross Sectional Studies

A
  • Gives information about age differences
  • Are quick to do
  • Are inexpensive
  • Can supply a large sample
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8
Q

Disadvantages of Cross Sectional Studies

A
  • Cohorts are difficult to separate
  • Can be generalised
  • No Historical continuity
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9
Q

Advantages of Longitudinal Studies

A
  • Gives information about age changes
  • Increased reliability
  • More in depth information per participant
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10
Q

Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies

A
  • Expensive
  • Time consuming
  • Restricted by generalisability
  • Small sample affected by dropouts.
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11
Q

Preferential Looking Behaviours

A
  • Studies babies and gives them two images to look at
  • Seeks to determine which image the prefer to look at.
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12
Q

Habituation Method

A
  • Studies in babies to determine if they decrease their response to a stimulus if they are exposed to it repeatedly
  • This concept states that an animal or a human may learn to ignore a stimulus because of repeated exposure to it.
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13
Q

Attachment Theory

A

Studies Attachment and separation anxiety

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14
Q

What is Attachment

A
  • refers to the emotional bonds of connection between infants and their caregivers
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15
Q

What is Separation Anxiety

A

The emotional distress displayed by infants when separated from their primary caregivers who they have formed an attachment with

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16
Q

Harry Harlow - 1959

A
  • Questions why do attachments form
  • Asks do we seek food or comfort
  • Studied infant monkeys with artificial mothers
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17
Q

Artificial Mother Experiment

A

Monkeys separated from mothers at birth were raised using two artificial mothers

  • For four newborn monkeys the cloth mother lactated and the wire mother did not
  • For another four newborn monkeys, the wire mother lactated and the cloth mother did not

Found there was a preference for cloth mother – regardless of which mother fed them, especially when fearful

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18
Q

What happens when attachments are not properly formed

A

Harlow found isolated infant monkeys showed:

  • withdrawal
  • rocking
  • huddling
  • unable to form sexual relationships as adults
  • when females became mothers they tended to ignore them and abuse them when they felt distressed
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19
Q

John Bowlby - 1969

A
  • Studied Attachment and Loss in orphans from WWII
  • found infants biologically motivated to form attachments as a survival technique
  • Found infants instinctively behave endearingly to trigger affection and protection in adults
  • Repeated experiences with caregivers establishes a working model
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20
Q

Mary Ainsworth - 1967, 1978

A
  • Developed the Strange Situation Procedure to assess quality of attachments between infants and caregivers
  • Attachment depends on the relationship between mother and infant
  • Babies not passive bystanders, their reactions can affect the caregivers behaviour
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21
Q

There are three types of attachment

A
  • Secure Attachment
  • Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment -
  • Avoidant Attachment
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22
Q

Secure Attachment

A

Child tends to be playful, less inhibited, exploration-oriented, sociable

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23
Q

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

A
  • Child tends to engage in visual checking signalling to reestablish contact.
  • Calling, pleading, moving to reestablish contact, clinging
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24
Q

Avoidant attachment

A

Child tends to maintain proximity while avoiding close contact

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25
Q

Percentage of Attachment styles

A
  • Secure: 75%
  • Resistant: 15%
  • Avoidant: 15%
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26
Q

Response to Separation Anxiety - Attachment Style

A
  • Secure: Distressed
  • Resistant: intense distress
  • Avoidant: No Sign of distress
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27
Q

Stranger Anxiety response - Attachment Style

A
  • Secure: Avoidance when alone, friendly when with parent.
  • Resistant: Fear of stranger
  • Avoidant: Plays with stranger
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28
Q

Parent Caregiving Style - Warm/Responsive

A
  • Parent generally warm and responsive
  • Good at reading cues and knowing when to be supportive and when to allow autonomy
  • Creates secure attachment
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29
Q

Infant Attachment Style: Secure Attachment

A
  • child welcomes close contact with caregiver
  • caregiver becomes a secure base while exploring the environment
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30
Q

Adult Attachment Style: Secure

A
  • finds it relatively easy to get close to others
  • comfortable depending on others and having others rely on them
  • no real fear of abandonment
  • not afraid of others getting too close
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31
Q

Parent Caregivint Style: Cold/Rejecting

A
  • distant, rejecting and not very responsive
  • Child takes a lesser priority with concerns possibly lying elsewhere
  • Creates Avoidant Attachment Style
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32
Q

Infant Attachment Style: Avoidant Attachment

A
  • Insecure caregiver bond
  • Characterised by little separation anxiety
  • Tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver
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33
Q

Adult Attachment Style: Avoidant

A
  • Uncomfortable getting close to others
  • Difficulty trusting partners
  • Difficulty allowing them to depend on us
  • Not comfortable getting too close to others
  • Finds intimacy difficult with love partners
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34
Q

Parents caregiving style: Ambivalent/inconsistent

A
  • Inconsestent in response, sometimes warm sometimes cold
  • Appears to have own agenda
  • Is loving but doesn’t always show it in the best way
  • Creates Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment style
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35
Q

Infant Attachment Style: Anxious/Ambivalent

A
  • Insecure caregiver bond
  • Characterised by strong separation anxiety
  • Tendency contact initiated by the caregivers after separation
36
Q

Adult Attachment Style: Anxious/Ambivalent

A
  • Feels others are reluctant to get as close as they would like
  • Often worry that partner doesn’t love them
  • Has fear of being abondened
  • Wants to merge with partner which can sometimes push them away
37
Q

Points about Attachment Theory: The Strange Sitution

A
  • Attachments can be reversed if conditions that set created the attachment changes
  • There is an interaction of temperament and attachment style
  • Attachment styles may define a RELATIONSHIP, but not individuals
  • Person vs Situation is important as there are multiple causes for behaviour
38
Q

Person vs situation debat

A
  • Asks whether it is the person or situation that affects behaviour
  • This relates to nature vs nurture
  • The view is that there are usually multiple causes for behaviour
39
Q

Stage Theories of Development

A
  • Describing development in terms of stages
  • Progression occurs in a particular order related to age
  • A stage is a developmental period that has characteristic patterns of behaviour
  • Movement through stages is prompted by need to make sense of experiences and desire to construct and understand the world
40
Q

Types of Development Theory

A
  • Continuous Development
    • says that change happens on a continuous scale without change
  • Discontinuous Development
    • says change happens in stages usually group by age
41
Q

3 main Development Theories

A
  • Cognitive Development - Jean Piaget
  • Personality Development - Erik Erikson
  • Moral Development - Kohlbergs Stage Theory
42
Q
A
  • Jean Piaget - 1952
  • Cognitive development refers to transitions in patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving
    • All children progress through 4 stages of cognitive
    development in the same order – although exact ages may vary
    • Believed that intelligence was not random, but was a set of organized cognitive structures that the infant actively constructed
    • This construction occurs through the adaptation to the environment
43
Q

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A
  • Stage 1 - Sensory Motor Period
  • Stage 2 - Preoperational Period
  • Stage 3 - Concrete Opertional
  • Stage 4 - Formal Operational
44
Q

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Period

A
  • Birth thru 2 years
  • Coordination of sensory input and motor responses
  • Development of object permanence
    • child recognises that objects
      continue to exist even when they are no longer visible
  • Innate reflexes at the beginning of the stage
  • Use mental symbols to represent objects
45
Q

Piaget’s Preoperational Period

A
  • 2 yrs thru 7 yrs
  • Development of Symbolic Thought
  • Marked by:
    • irreversibility
    • centration
    • egocentrism
    • animism
46
Q

Irreversibility

A

A stage in early child development in which a child falsely believes that actions cannot be reversed or undone.

47
Q

Centration

A
  • The tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation
  • Neglects the possibillty of other, possibly relevant aspects
  • eg: Perceiving that “Mummy cannot also be a Tara or Jason’s sister or a wife, sister or daughter
48
Q

Egocentrism

A
  • Not able to differentiate between self and other
  • In children usually cannot see that Mother is separate from themselves
49
Q

Piaget’s Concrete Operational

A
  • 7 Yrs thru 11 Yrs
  • Mental Operations applied to concrete events
  • Mastery of Conservation - The ability to perceive volume when presented in different shapes
  • Develops understanding of Heirarchical Classification
  • Acquisition of reversibility – allows a child to undo an action
  • Acquisition of decentration – allows the child to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously
50
Q

Heirarchical Conservation

A

Hierarchical Classification is a system of grouping things according to a hierarchy, or levels and orders.

51
Q

Mastery of Conservation

A
  • Conservation refers to a logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size, according to the psychologist Jean Piaget.
52
Q

Piaget’s Formal Operational Period

A
  • 11 years thru to adulthood
  • Mental Operations applied to abstract Ideas
  • Characterised by:
    – more systematic in problem-solving in adolescence
    – Enjoyment in abstract thinking and contemplation
    – Envision possible courses of action
53
Q

Animism

A

The Belief that all things are living

54
Q

Piaget’s Conservation Task

A
55
Q

Mastery of Conservation: Pendulum Problem

A
56
Q

Points of Evaluation: Cognitive Development

A
  • Piaget undestates how social interactions influence cognitive development
  • Piaget’s tasks are culturaly biased
  • Schooling and literacty affects rates of development
  • Piaget is vague about the processes that give rise to children’s thinking and what produces cognitive growth
57
Q
A
  • Erik Erikson - 1953
  • Developed Eight stages of lifespan
  • Each stage comprised of two psychosocial crises, one positive and one negative
  • Movement from one stage:
    • biological issue related to age
    • resolved socially
    • leads to identity formation and personality development
58
Q

Erikson’s stages of Psychosocial Development

A
59
Q

Erickson’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage One - 1st Year of Life

A
  • Trust vs Mistrust
  • Is my world predictable and supportive?
  • the infant must depend solely on the caregiver which should lead to a trusting view of the world
60
Q

Trust vs Mistrust

A
  • Stage one
  • 1st year of life
61
Q

Erickson’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage Two - 2nd - 3rd Years of life

A
  • Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
  • Can i do things myself or must I always rely on others
  • The child begins to take personal responsibility
  • should begin to acquire a sense of self sufficiency
62
Q

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

A
  • Stage Two of development
  • 2nd - 3rd year of life
63
Q

Erickson’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage Three - 4th - 6th year of life

A
  • Initiative vs Guilt
  • Am I good or bad?
  • Children learn to get along with family members
  • This tends to lead towards self confidence
64
Q

Initiative vs Guilt

A
  • Stage Three of Ericksons Theory of Personality Development
  • 4th - 6th Year of Life
65
Q

Erickson’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage Four - 6th Year of life to Puberty

A
  • Industry vs Inferiority
  • Am I competent or am I worthless
  • Children must function socially outside of their family
  • This develops a sense of competence
66
Q

Industry vs Inferiority

A
  • Stage Four
  • 6th Year to Puberty
67
Q

Erickson’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage Five - Adolescence

A
  • Identity vs Role Confusion
  • Who am I and where am I going
    • James Marcia’s Four Identity Status
      • Identity Acheivement
      • Foreclosure
      • Moratorium
      • Identity Diffusion
68
Q

Identity vs Role Confusion

A
  • Stage Five
  • Adolescence
  • Add James Marcia’s 1980 - Four Identity Status
    *
69
Q

James Marcia - 1980

A
  • developed Four Identity Status based on Eriksons Identity vs Role Confusion stage of development in adolescence
    • Identity Acheivement
    • Identity Moratorium
    • Foreclosure
    • Identity Diffusion
70
Q

Marcia’s Identity Acheivement

A
  • Active exploration of beliefs and values
  • Crisis of values is experienced
  • Strong commitment to a highly developed set of beliefs and values.
  • Characterized by high commitment and high exploration.
71
Q

Marcia’s Identity Moratorium

A
  • The status in which an adolescent is currently in a crisis
  • Exploration of various commitments and is ready to make choices
  • No commitment Has been made to these choices yet.
72
Q

Marcia’s Identity Diffusion

A
  • Adolescent has not experienced a crisis yet and is not committed to own ideals or values
  • Finds Commitments difficult
  • Struggle with relating to others and society
  • Extremely impressionable when it comes to new ideas and beliefs because they do not value their own.
  • Often feel lost in life and express no interest in improving themselves or creating long-term goals
  • May seek gratification through external forces
  • Has difficulty exploring own Identity seeking identity
73
Q

Marcia’s Identity Foreclosure

A
  • Where an Adolescent has an identity but hasn’t explored other options or ideas.
  • Most common in young adolescents
  • Individual has just adopted the traits and qualities of parents and friends.
  • Has a commitment to their values and ideals but may not yet have experienced a crisis
  • May have committed too soon to one set of ideals without questioning their own values or beleifs
74
Q

Erikson’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage Six - Early Adulthood

A
  • Intimacy vs Isolation
  • Shall I share my life with another or live alone?
  • The concern with the ability to share intimacy with others
  • Tends to lead to empathy and openness
75
Q

Intimacy vs Isolation

A
  • Stage Six
  • Early Adulthood
76
Q

Erikso’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage Seven - Middle Adulthood

A
  • Generativity vs Stagnation
  • Will I produce something of real value
  • Self-Absorption involves concern for future generations
  • Tends towards unselfish guidance of younger people
77
Q

Generativity vs Self Absorption

A
  • Stage Seven
  • Middle Adulthood
78
Q

Erikson’s Theory of Personality Development

Stage Eight - Late Adulthood

A
  • Integrity vs Despair
  • Have I lived a full life?
  • Involves overcoing the tendency to dwll on mistakes of the past
  • Begins to manage the imminent prescence of death.
79
Q

Integrity vs Despair

A
  • Stage Eight
  • Late Adulthood
80
Q

Erikson’s Theory of Development

Evaluation of strenghts & weaknesses

A

Theory accounts for continuity & transition in personality development

  • Continuity → connection between early childhood experience and aspects of later personality
  • Transition → shows how new challenges in social relationships stimulate personality growth throughout life
  • Depends on illustrative case studies → may be interpreted in multiple ways
  • Idealised description of “typical” developmental patterns → does not account for individual differences
81
Q
A
  • Lawrence Kohlberg 1969
  • Developed Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
  • Development of Moral Reasoning in childhood and adolescence
  • Three premises underlying Moral Development
    • Based on moral reasoning not moral action
    • Unfolds in a stage like manner
    • Based on a sense of social justice
  • Six Stages across three levels
    • Individual Orientation
    • Social Orientation
    • Ethical Orientation
82
Q

Stages of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

A
  1. Preconventional Level
  2. Conventional Level
  3. Postconventional Level
83
Q

Kohlbergs Preconventional level of Moral Development

A
  • Younger children think in terms of external authority
  • Acts considered right or wrong based on potential punishment
84
Q

Kohlbergs Postconventional level of Moral Development

A
  • Changes in adolscence towards more developed moral reasoning
  • Acts are individually judged by a personal code of ethics
85
Q

Kohlbergs Conventional level of Moral Development

A

Older children see rules as necessary for maintaining social order

86
Q

Evaluation of Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development

A
  • Universality
  • Moral reasoning NOT moral action
  • Gender Bias
  • Hypothetial vs real-life issues

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