8. Reproduction Flashcards
(208 cards)
1
Q
When in the cycle does oestrus occur
A
The latter part of the follicular phase
2
Q
When is the optimal time to mate a female
A
Just before follicle ovulates
3
Q
What is the fertilisation period
A
The time when oocytes are available to be fertilised by sperm
4
Q
What is the fertile period
A
The time when mating could result in pregnancy
5
Q
What hormones can be monitored to suggest correct time for mating
A
Progesterone - decreases before oestrus (apart from in dogs where it increases)
LH - surge triggers ovulation
6
Q
Ovarian structures seen on ultrasound
A
Corpus Luteum - ovulation cannot occur
Antral follicles - Cow (16-20mm) Mare (30-50mm)
7
Q
Rectal palpation to determine stage of cycle in the cow
A
If oestrogen is dominant - narrow and tense cervix
progesterone dominant - cervix and uterus are flaccid and soft
8
Q
Rectal palpation to determine stage of cycle in the mare
A
oestrogen dominant - cervix is broad and soft, uterus is soft
progesterone dominant - cervix is hard and narrow, uterus has increased tone
9
Q
Cells on vaginal cytology to suggest stage of cycle - anoestrus, proestrus, early oestrus, late oestrus
A
Anoestrus - small, nucleated cells
Proestrus - RBC
Early oestrus - less RBC, larger cells, some anuclear
Late oestrus - low RBC, mostly large and anuclear
10
Q
Pharmacological control of ovulation
A
GnRH => LH surge => ovulation
HCG - has LH like activity => induce ovulation
11
Q
Breeding soundness exam - female, general process
A
Clinical history - previous pregnancy, could the animal be pregnant
Risk of infection/zoonosis
Any pathogen screening required - e.g. horses
General clinical exam
Mammary glands, perineum, vulva, vestibule, cervix, uterus, ovaries
12
Q
Pathogen screening required in the female
A
Bacteria - CEMO, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas in the horse
Viral - FeLV in the cat
13
Q
Cervix exam - what to look for
A
Evaluation of cervical opening - stage of the cycle
Abnormal - discharge, trauma, fibrosis
DONT breech unless 100% sure not pregnant
14
Q
Uterine exam - methods
A
Trans-rectal palpation
Trans-abdominal palpation
Radiography
Ultrasonography
Endoscopy
Cytology
Biopsy
15
Q
Ovarian exam - methods
A
Palpation - rectally
Ultrasound
Radiography
16
Q
Pregnancy diagnosis - main methods
A
Absence of oestrus
Detection of hormones/proteins associated with pregnancy
Detection of the foetus or foetal membrane
Physical changes in the dam
Maternal changes secondary to endocrinological changes
17
Q
Endocrinological changes in the mare - pregnant vs not pregnant
A
If not pregnant - progesterone falls
If pregnant:
Progesterone high from the primary CL
primary CL wanes - lower progesterone
Endometrial cups => eCG => high progesterone
Cups wane - progesterone drops
Oestrogen high
18
Q
Specific marker of pregnancy in the bitch
A
Relaxin - increases around day 24
19
Q
Most common methods of PD in a cow and when
A
Transrectal ultrasound - day 28
Transrectal palpation - day 35
20
Q
Most common method of PD in a ewe and when
A
Transabdominal ultrasound - day 30
21
Q
Most common methods of PD in a mare and when
A
Transrectal ultrasound - day 15
transrectal palpation - day 21
eCG - day 60-120
22
Q
Most common methods of PD in a bitch/queen and when
A
Transabdominal ultrasound - day 25
plasma relaxin - day 25
23
Q
Most common method of PD in a sow and when
A
transabdominal B-mode ultrasound - day 20
24
Q
Breeding soundness exam - Male, general process
A
Clinical history
Any infectious risk
Pathogen screening required
General clinical exam
Observation of Libido
Exam of the scrotum, testes, sheath, penis, and accessory glands
Collect and testing of ejaculate
25
Pathogen screening - male
Bacteria - CEMO, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas in horse
Virus - porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) in boars
26
Aspects of libido to look for
Interest in female
Detection of oestrus by the male
Mounting behaviour
Erection
Intromission
Ejaculation
Interest after mounting
27
Examination of ejaculate
Number of sperm
Motility
Morphology
Live staining
Other
28
Endocrinology testing of cryptorchidism
Rig Test
Use hCG or GnRH stimulation test
See if testosterone increases
29
Why monitor fertility in the male
Important driver of efficacy - profit
Hard to see externally
30
Types of measures of fertility
Measuring number of offspring
- lambing percentage
- piglets/sow/year
Not measuring the number of offspring:
- birthing interval
- proportion pregnant in a season
31
What is a conception rate
Proportion of cows that are served that become pregnant
32
What is the submission rate
Proportion of eligible cows are we serving
33
3 events that occur during normal sexual development
1. establishment of sex chromosomes
2. modelling of embryonic gonadal tissue
3. recession and growth of external genital tissue
34
What is chimerism? and give an example
A chimera is an organism whose cells are derived from two or more zygotes.
e.g. bovine freemartin
35
What is a true hermaphrodite
Histological evidence of both ovarian and testicular tissue
Karyotype is often XX
ambiguity of external/internal genitalia or both
36
What is a male pseudohermaphrodite
Incompletely masculinised and ambiguous external and internal genitalia
Karyotype is XY
Gonads look like testes
37
What is a female pseudohermaphrodite
Karyotype is XX
Feminine (ambiguous in a few cases) internal genitalia, masculinised external genitalia.
38
Common pathologies of the ovaries
Ovotestis
Ovarian cysts/para ovarian cysts
Neoplasms e.g. granulose cell tumour
39
congenital lesions of the uterus
Segmental aplasia
Mesonephric cysts
40
inflammatory disorders of the uterus
Endometritis - inflammation of the endometrium
Metritis - inflammation has extended to the myometrium
Pyometra - suppurative infection of the uterus
41
Common neoplasm of the uterus
Leiomyoma - smooth muscle tumours
Endometrial carcinoma - cows
42
Common neoplasm of the external genitalia
Leiomyoma - smooth muscle tumour
Squamous cell carcinoma
Canine transmissible venereal tumour
Fibropapiloma - cow vulva
43
Common mammary gland pathology
mastitis
44
Mammary tumours in small animals
benign - adenomas (epithelial), and mixed tumours
metastatic - carcinomas
45
What is cryptorchidism
Incomplete decent of one or both of the testes
46
what is testicular hypoplasia and what are the causes
Testes appear smaller than normal, congenital or pre-puberty
causes - poor nutrition, zinc deficiency, genetic, endocrine disorders
47
what is testicular atrophy/degeneration and what are the causes
After puberty reduction in size of the testes
small and firm consistency
Causes - infection, increased scrotal temperature, decreased blood supply, radiation damage
48
inflammation of testes and epididymis real name
Orchitis (testes), epididymitis (epididymus)
49
causes of epididymitis in the ram
Brucella ovis - Notifiable
Haematogenous spread to testes
50
3 types of testicular neoplasia
Interstitial (Leydig) cell tumour
Seminoma
Sertoli cell tumour
51
Types of prostatic disease
Hyperplasia
Prostatitis
Neoplasia
52
Prostatitis - how does it develop and what can it lead to
Ascending bacterial infection
Can develop to peritonitis, septicaemia/toxaemia
53
Conception failure vs Embryonic death
Conception failure = not fertilisation so no zygote forms
Embryonic death = loss of embryo before organogenesis completes
54
Early pregnancy loss causes (3) in cows
Negative energy balance
Ovarian pathology
Nutrition
55
Early pregnancy loss causes (2) in pigs
Ovarian pathologies
Uterine capacity
56
Nutrition issues leading to early pregnancy loss in cows
Negative energy balance
High non-esterified fatty acids
High protein => elevated urea => toxic to oocytes
57
Infectious diseases causing embryonic death in sheep
Toxoplasmosis
Schmallenberg
Boarder disease
58
What hormone stimulates follicular growth
FSH
59
What hormone stimulates ovulation
LH and hCG
60
what hormone stimulates luteolysis
PGF2A (prostaglandin)
61
What are the short term effects of GnRH in females
Hasten oestrus or ovulation by inducing LH surge
Force ovulation or luteinization of cystic structures
62
What are the long term actions of GnRH in females e.g. desorelin implant
Initial stimulation of HPG axis
Then down-regulation of GnRH receptor so surpasses the axis
Controlling breeding behaviour
63
Use of FSH pharmacologically in females
Superovulation
eCG has FSH like activity
64
Use of LH pharmacologically in females, and what has LH like activity
Stimulates maturation of follicles
hCH has LH like activity
65
Use of progesterone pharmacologically in females
Suppresses the HPG axis - treat/prevent pseudopregnancy
Inducing/ synchronising oestrus with progesterone withdrawal
66
What are progesterone receptor antagonists used for in females
terminating pregnancy in dogs
67
what are oestrogens used for in females (hint - focus on target tissues)
Control of urinary incontinence
68
What Is PGF2A used for in females
Terminating luteal phase to synchronise oestrus
Induction of abortion
Induction of parturition
69
What are prolactin inhibitors used for, and how do they work
Removes CL support => luteolysis => end of luteal phase
Terminating pregnancy
Treating pyometras
Reduce behaviour of pseudopregnancy
Stop milk production
70
What is melatonin used for in ewes and mares
Ewe - bring on cyclicality
Mare - suppresses oestrus
71
What is oxytocin used for in the female
Initiates strong contractions of uterine muscles
Aid passage of retained placenta
Promotes milk let-down
72
What are progestogens used for in males
Decrease testosterone levels (negative feedback)
Suppress spermatogenesis
73
What is a GnRH depot injection used for in males
Initial stimulation of the axis
Receptor down-regulation => down regulated testosterone production for a limited amount of time
74
Will giving gonadotropins improve semen quality
No
75
What is LH (hCG) used for pharmacologically in males
Confirming presence of testicular tissue (rig test)
76
How to simulate onset of cyclicality early in sheep
Melatonin
Progestogen sponges - them removal
Ram effect
77
How to synchronise groups of sows/gilts pharmacologically
Progestogen for 14-18 days
can also use eCG just before P4 removal
78
How to control cyclicality in cows pharmacologically
Ovsynch (GnRH, PGF2A, GnRH)
Progestogen and PGF
2 doses of PGF 12 days apart
79
How to suppress oestrus in mares
Daily treatments of progestogen 10-15 days
80
How to stimulate onset of cyclicity in mares
Daylight
Oral progestogen for 10 days
81
how to suppress oestrus in the bitch
Progestogen depots for 6 months
GnRH agonist implant - takes time to act
82
How to induce oestrus in bitches
Prolactin inhibitors
GnRH agonist implant
hCG induces ovulation
83
how to suppress oestrus in the queen
GnRH agonist implant
GnRH antagonists
Melatonin implants
84
How to induce oestrus in the queen
Exposure to daylight
hCG induces ovulation
85
how to treat anovulatory anoestrus pharmacologically
Stimulate ovarian follicle wave development
Ovsynch and progesterone
Progesterone and eCG
86
How to treat cystic ovarian disease (follicular or luteal)
If follicular - GnRH or hCG to induce luteinisation
In luteal - PGF2A to stimulate luteolysis
87
How to treat persistent CL/prolonged dioestrus
Induce luteolysis - PGF2A
87
What is immunoconception
Vaccination against key reproductive proteins
88
2 common targets for immunoconception
Zona pellucida vaccines
Anti-GnRH vaccines
89
how to treat pseudopregnancy
Block action of progesterone
terminate luteal function (PGF2A or prolactin inhibitors)
Mimic fetal signal (corticosteroids)
90
Types of surgical neutering in the female
Ovariohysterectomy
Ovariectomy
Hysterectomy
91
What time to surgically neuter in the cycling bitch
>12 weeks after oestrus - spaying in anoestrus
3 weeks post oestrus - removal of ovaries before prolactin starts so no risk of pseudopregnancy
92
When to neuter a cycling queen
Avoid oestrus - uterus is more vascular and friable
93
types of surgical neutering in the male
Orchidectomy (castration)
Vasectomy - teaser rams
Crushing of spermatic cord - calves
Inducing ischaemic necrosis of scrotum - lambs
Injection of irritants into testis - chemical castration
94
Castration types
Open - enter the parietal vaginal tunic
Closed - don't enter the parietal vaginal tunic
95
what type of castration is used in rodents and why
Closed or modified technique
Rodents have open inguinal canal so risk of hernia
96
Complications of neutering during surgery
Anaesthesia related
Bleeding
Damage to other organs
97
Complications of neutering during recovery
Anaesthesia related
Bleeding
Herniation
98
Complications of neutering shortly after surgery
wound inflammation
scrotal haematoma
wound infection
wound breakdown
dogs licking scrotum
99
Longer term complications from neutering
Surgical material left behind
Pyogranuloma
Incomplete removal of gonad
100
Consequences of removing the gonads
Increased risk of some diseases e.g. urinary incontinence, neoplasia, growth plate fractures
body conformational changes e.g. loss of male characteristics
101
3 main categories of causes of infertility in the female
Anatomical
Physiological
Management
102
Anatomical causes of infertility in females - congenital vs acquired
Congenital - ovarian hypoplasia, free-martinism, persistence of hymen (mare)
Acquired - adhesions, endometrial fibrosis, cystic endometrial hyperplasia
103
Physiological causes of infertility in females
Ovarian pathology
Uterine infection
Failure to establish pregnancy
104
Management causes of infertility in females
Nutrition
Poor oestrus detection
Stress
105
Types of ovarian pathology which cause infertility in females
Anovulatory anoestrus
Cystic ovarian disease
persistent CL
106
2 aspects of 'failure to establish pregnancy'
conception failure
early embryonic death
107
Nutritional influences on infertility
Negative energy balance
vitamin or mineral deficiencies or toxicity
oestrogen substances in plants - red clover
increased dietary proteins => increase urea => toxic to oocyte
108
definition of fertility
capability of producing offspring
109
definition of sterility
absolute inability to producing offspring
110
definition of subfertility/infertility
less than average ability to produce offspring
111
classification of infertility in the male (2 categories)
Inability to achieve coitus
Inability to fertilise
112
Examples of abnormalities of coitus in the male
Immaturity
Inability or unwilling to mount
inability to achieve intromission
Haematospermia
113
examples of failure of fertilisation in the male
Testicular disease
sperm abnormalities
accessory gland disease
epididymal lesions
114
Causes of inability to achieve intromission in the male
Failure of erection
Penile deviations
Penile trauma
Preputial abnormalities
115
Definition of resorption (of an embryo)
Death and resorption of an embryo - before mineralisation occurs
116
Definition of mummification
death of an embryo with the maintenance of progesterone => rapid absorption of fluid => mummify
117
Definition of maceration
Autolysis/putrefaction of the dead foetus that has not been expelled
118
Fetal death vs stillbirth
Fetal death - death of the foetus
Stillbirth - fetus reaches term but dies during process of delivery
119
Types of infectious causes of pregnancy loss
Reproductive pathogens
Recrudescence of latent viral infections
Ascending infections
120
non infectious causes of pregnancy loss
Stress
Maternal illness => pyrexia
Nutritional phytotoxins
Genetic abnormalities
Uterine disease - cannot form a placenta
121
significance of the lute-placental shift
time frame where progesterone production switches from CL to the placenta
This means that f the foetus dies after the shift, there is nothing producing progesterone as the placenta dies too - so the foetus will be expulsed
if there is no shift and foetus dies, CL will contuse to produce P4 so foetus will be retained => mummification/maceration
122
Which species do NOT have a luteo-placental shift
goat, dog, pig
123
4 stages of parturition
Preparation - production of relaxin
First stage - onset of uterine contraction
Second stage - onset of abdominal contractions and delivery of foetus
Third stage - delivery of placenta
124
Main causes of dystocia - maternal
Inadequate expulsive forces - uterine inertia, weak abdominal straining
Inadequate size of birth canal - incomplete dilation, inadequate pelvis
125
Main causes of dystocia - fetal
Oversized
fault disposition - wrong presentation
126
6 main postpartum conditions
Haemorrhage
Trauma/laceraltions
Prolapse
Placental retention
Metritis
Recumbency/nerve damage
127
Degrees of laceration of the perineum
first degree - skin and mucosa
second degree - involves muscle of perineal body
third degree - torn vagina and rectal wall (cloaca)
Vagino-rectal fistula -penetration from vaginal cavity into the rectum
128
causes of post partum haemorrhage
breakage of the umbilicus and blood leaking from placenta
Uterine or vaginal laceration
129
Types of prolapses
uterus
bladder
vagina and cervix
130
Consequences of retained foetal membranes
Increases risk of bacterial invasion as cervix stays open
Risk of metritis
131
Why are retained foetal membranes an emergency in the mare
Metritis => laminitis which can be severe
132
Most common causes of recumbency post partum
Hypocalcaemia
Hypomagnesia
Leg/nerve injury
Other injury
133
Causes of dystocia in the cow
Breed - Holsteins have a high incidence
Beef sires - feto-maternal disposition common
Heifers bred at an early age
Twin pregnancies
134
Causes of dystocia in the mare
Faulty disposition - fetus has to rotate during delivery
Second stage of parturition is very short - obstructive dystocia due to faulty disposition
135
Causes of dystocia in the bitch
Primary uterine inertia
Faulty disposition
Feto-maternal disproportion - especially for bully breeds
136
Causes of dystocia in the queen
Primary uterine inertia
Faulty disposition
Fetal monsters
Previous pelvic trauma
137
Causes of dystocia in the sheep
Feto-maternal disproportion
Faulty disposition
138
Causes of dystocia in the sow
Uterine inertia
Simultaneous presentation of foetuses
139
Treatment options for dystocia
Manipulation
Fetotomy
Caesarean section
140
Indications for caesarean - cow
calf cannot be delivered with traction and mutation
uterine torsion
incomplete dilation of cervix
When fetotomy would be traumatic, expensive and more time-consuming
141
Indications for caesarean - mare
Abnormal disposition which cannot be corrected
Uterine torsion
Severe deformities
Vaginal or vestibular obstruction
142
Indications for caesarean - bitch and queen
primary uterine inertia
obstructive dystocia than cannot be corrected or large litter
fetal distress
signs of placental separation with more of the litter to be born
143
Indications for caesarean - ewe
feto-maternal disproportion
ring womb
traumatised vaginal prolapse
144
Indications for caesarean - sow
prolonged parturition >12 hours
fetomaternal disproportion
secondary uterine inertia
145
Changes with pregnancy that affect anaesthesia
increased oxygen requirements
decreased functional residual capacity
increase cardiac output
delayed gastric emptying
146
Anaesthesia for c section - drug considerations
Chose drugs with short duration of action
lowest possible doses
oxygenate
use a cuffed tube - reduce regurgitation
local anaesthetics to reduce MAC
147
What are the 3 options of local anaesthetic for ruminant c section
Inverted L block
Proximal paravertebral block
Distal paravertebral block
148
steps in anaesthesia for a c section
Premedication
Check equipment and place IV cannula
Preoxygenation
Induce
Monitor
Post op recovery
149
differenced between neonates and adults
Can't thermoregulate well
Immature renal and hepatic function
High risk of hypovolaemia and hypoglycaemia
Immunological immaturity
150
How passive immunity is acquired
Transplacental
Colostrum
151
Types of immunoglobulins in colostrum
Mainly IgG
some IgM and IgE
152
when to vaccinate neonates
In the immunity gap
between decline in maternal antibodies and increase in making their own antibodies
153
Causes of failure of passive transfer (FPT)
Poor quality colostrum
Not enough colostrum
Not enough colostrum quick enough
154
Consequences of failure of passive transfer (FPT)
increased likelihood of infection
GI and respiratory disease
Joint sepsis
Umbilical abscess
155
Treatment of Failure of passive transfer
Donor colostrum (before 12 hours)
Hyperimmune plasma (after 12 hours)
156
Common problems sick in foals
Meconium impaction
Failure passive transfer
Sepsis
Hernia
Perinatal asphyxia syndrome
157
Steps in clinical exam of mammary gland
Look a the skin
Palpation of the gland
Examination of the teat and teat canal
Expression of milk (in lactating animals)
Milk production data (dairy cows mostly)
158
Tests to look for mammary gland disease
California mastitis test
Ultrasound exam
Fine needle aspiration
159
Common mammry disorders
Disease of the skin
Damage to the suspensory apparatus
Damage to skin/teat
Inverted nipple
Mastitis
Mammary enlargement
Neoplasia
Agalactia
160
what is the TNM system for classification and staging of tumors
T = primary tumour
N = regional lymph nodes affected
M = distant matastasis
161
2 causes of agalactia and how to treat
Failure of milk production - give prolactin agonist e.g. metaclopramide
Failure of milk let down - give oxytocin
162
2 pathogeneses of kidney disease
Haematogenous (descending infection)
Urinary (ascending infection)
163
Viral aetiologies of kidney disease
Canine herpesvirus 1
Ovine herpesvirus 2
Canine adenovirus 1
164
Bacteria aetiologies of kidney disease
Escherichia coli
Leptospira interrogans
Actinobacillus equuli
Corynebacterium renale
165
Parasitic aetiologies of kidney disease
Toxocara canis
Halicephalobus gingivalis
Encephalitozoon cuniculi
Leishmania spp.
166
Causes of non-suppurative tubulointerstitial nephritis
E. coli
Canine herpesvirus 1
canine adenovirus 1
L. interrogans
167
what type of inflammation is caused by non-suppurative tubulointerstitial nephritis
Lympho-histiocytic inflammation
168
Appearance of kidneys with non-suppurative tubulointerstitial nephritis
swollen
pale tan colour
grey mottling of capsular surface
169
Causes of suppurative embolic nephritis
Actinobacillus equuli
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Trueperella pyogenes.
170
what kidney disease has 'showers of septic emboli'
Suppurative embolic nephritis
171
Causes of pyelonephritis (bacterial)
E. coli
Staphylococci
Streptococci
Pseudomonas
Enterobacter
172
Pathogenesis of lower urinary tract infections
Ascending - from urethra
descending - from nephritis or pyelonephritis
173
Causes of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder) - pathogens
E. coli
Streptococcus
Staphylococcus
Enterococci
Proteus vulgaris
174
Predisposing factors for cystitis
Stagnatio of urine
uroliths causing trauma
catheterisation
diabete mellitus
corticosteroids
hyperoestrogenism
being female
175
what is an amyloid
misfolded, abnormal proteinaceous material associated with chronic inflammation
176
what is amyloidosis
Extracellular deposition of amyloid
When amyloids lodge in glomerulus, it becomes permanently open and no longer functions
177
How to identify amyloids
Congo red stain
Glow apple green under polarised light
178
what is nephrotic syndrome and how it develops
Damage to glomerular filtration barrier =>
Leakage of low molecular weight proteins into glomerular filtrate e.g. albumin =>
Protein rich filtrate in tubules =>
Protein in urine
179
4 causes of nephrotic syndrome
Amyloidosis
Glomerularnephritis
Neoplasia
Diabetes Mellitus
180
Clinical signs of nephrotic syndrome
Proteinuria
Hypoprotenaemia
Hyperlipidemia
Generalised oedema
181
how does nephrotic syndrome cause hyperlipidaemia
Hepatic response to hypoproteinaemia
Generalised increase in production of proteins
Lipoproteins => hyperlipoproteinaemia and hypercholesterolemia
182
How does nephrotic syndrome cause oedema
Decreased plasma colloid osmotic pressure
Stimulates RAAS
Stimulates release of ADH in response to hypovolaemia
Body retains water
183
How glomerulonephritis causes nephrotic. syndrome
Damages glomerular filtration barrier => proteinuria or protein losing nephropathy
if this gets severe enough = nephrotic syndrome
184
Common causes of glomerulonephritis
Chronic immune repose => deposition of immune complexes
Viral infections - FeLV, FIV, FIPV, BVDV, canine adenovirus 1
Bacterial infections - pyometra, pyoderma
Parasitism - dirofilariasis, Leishmaniasis
Neoplasia
185
Glomerulosclerosis cause
Chronic glomerulonephritis
186
common causes of acute tubular necrosis
Hypoxia/ischaemia
Nephrotoxicity
187
2 types of tubulointersistial nephritis
Suppurative
Non-suppurative
188
Embolic suppurative nephritis consequences
Bacteraemia or septic thromboembolism
Multiple small accesses (micro abscesses) or some large ones
189
Name the agent causing embolic suppurative nephritis in the following species - horse, swine, cattle, sheep/goat
Horse - Actinobacillus equuli
Swine - secondary to Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Cattle - Trueperella pyogenes
Sheep/Goat - Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis
190
What is pyelonephritis and how does the infection arrive
Inflammation of the pelvis and renal parenchyma
Ascending infection
191
Risk factors for pyelonephritis
Urine stasis/obstruction
Being female
Diabetes
Congenoital malformations e.g. ectopic ureters
192
Endogenous and specific urinary pathogens that cause pyelonephritis
Endogenous - E. coli, staphylococci, streptococci, Enterobacter spp.
Pathogens - Corynebacterium renale (cattle)
Actinobaculum suis (swine)
193
What is the most common renal neoplasia
Renal carcinoma - highly malignant
194
What is the most common neoplasm of the urinary bladder
Urothelial cell carcinoma (epithelial cell tumour)
195
How renal damage alters Cs2+ and P metabolism
Renal damage => decreased GFR => retention of phosphate => hyperphosphatemia
Increased formation of hydroxyapatite crystals
Binds to calcium reducing free calcium in the blood
Crystal causes secondary systemic metastatic mineralization
Hypocalcemia stimulated parathyroid gland => hypoplastic => renal secondary hypoparathyroidism
Increased PTH => increased bone resorption
196
What 3 things cause umbilical swelling
Defect in umbilical wall
Infections
Persistent urachus
197
Treatment options for non-emergency hernias
Constricting bands
Surgery
198
Signs of persistent urachus
Dribbling of urine from urachus
Posturing to urinate and failing
Pain
199
Omphalophlebitis vs omphaloarteritis vs urachal sepsis
Omphalophlebitis - Infection of the umbilical veins
Omphaloarteritis - Infections of one or both of the umbilical arteries
Urachal sepsis - Infection of the urachus
200
How chronic kidney disease progressed to kidney failure
Destruction and loss of nephrons
Remaining nephrons hypertrophy
Progressive and irreversible loss of nephrons
End result is fibrosis
201
What is acute kidney injury
Sudden onset damage
Reversible
if progresses with permeant loss of nephrons => CKD
Rapidly fatal
202
Name 6 causes of acute kidney injury (AKI)
1. Poor renal perfusion/ severe hypoxia
2. Nephrotoxins e.g. ethylene glycol
3. Obstructive disease of either ureter or urethra
4. Infection
5. Hypercalcaemia
6. Cutaneous and renal glomerular vasculopathy (Alabama rot in dogs)
203
Name 5 causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD)
1. Resulting from AKI
2. Familial renal disease e.g. amyloidosis or renal dysplasia
3. Inflammation or immune mediated disease
4. Ischaemia. vascular injury
5. Unknown
204
2 types of ectopic ureters
Extramural: inserts in urethra, vestibule or vagina (females) or ductus deferens (male)
Intramural: correct insertion site at trigone of bladder but tunnels in urethral wall to open distally
205
3 forms of ureteral obstruction
Intraluminal e.g. clots
Intramural e.g. neoplasia or stricture
Extramural e.g. post op ligation of ureter
206
Unilateral ureteral obstruction consequence
↑ ureteric pressure proximal to obstruction => ↑ renal tubular pressure => ↓GFR
Complete obstruction => hydronephrosis => fibrosis
Compensatory hypertrophy of kidney
207
Bilateral ureteral obstruction consequences
Life thretening
Renal pain and azotemia
AKI
