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Physiology > Mechanics Of Breathing > Flashcards

Mechanics Of Breathing Flashcards

1
Q

Four key functions of the respiratory system

A

Exchange of gasses between the atmosphere and blood
Homeostatic regulation of body pH
Protection from inhaled pathogens
Vocalization

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2
Q

Briefly describe exchange of gasses between the atmosphere and blood

A

The body brings in oxygen for distribution to the tissues and eliminates CO2 waste produced by metabolism.

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3
Q

Briefly describe homeostatic regulation of body pH

A

The lungs can alter body pH by selectively retaining for secreting CO2

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4
Q

Describe how the respiratory system protects from inhaled pathogens and irritating substances

A

The respiratory epithelium is well supplied with the defence mechanisms to trap and destroy potentially harmful substances before they can enter the body.

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5
Q

What is vocalization

A

Air moving across vocal chord creates vibrations used for speech, singing and other forms of communication

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6
Q

What is lost from the body through the respiratory system besides carbon dioxide

A

Water and heat

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7
Q

How is flow in the respiratory system similar to the cardiovascular system

A

There’s an exchange of bulk flow of air between the environment and the interior air spaces of the lungs. It follows many of the same principles that govern the bulk flow of blood through the cardiovascular system.

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8
Q

3 types of cells in the alveoli

A
  1. Type I alveolar cell for gas exchange
  2. Type II alveolar cells synthesize surfactant
  3. Alveolar macrophages ingest foreign material
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9
Q

What principles govern bulk flow of air in the respiratory system

A
  1. Flow takes place from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure.
  2. A muscular pump create pressure gradients.
  3. Resistance to airflow is influence primarily by the diameter of the tube through which air is flowing.
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10
Q

Cellular respiration

A

The intracellular reaction of oxygen with organic molecules to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP.

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11
Q

What is external respiration

A

The movement of gasses between the environment and the body cells

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12
Q

When ventilation is a cycle between

A

Inspiration and expiration

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13
Q

Air flows from regions of high

A

Pressure to regions of low pressure

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14
Q

What is the difference between ventilation and respiration

A

Ventilation is the bulk flow exchange of air between that atmosphere in the lungs. Respiration is a movement a gasses between the environment and body cells.

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15
Q

What does External respiration include

A
  1. Exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs
  2. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the blood.
  3. The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood
  4. The exchange of gasses between blood in the cells.
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16
Q

The respiratory system consist of

A

Structures involved and ventilation and gas exchange. These are: the conducting system, alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries, and bones and muscles of the thorax

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17
Q

The upper respiratory tract

A

The mouth, nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx.

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18
Q

The lower respiratory tract consists of

A

The trachea, 2 primary bronchi, their branches and the lungs

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19
Q

What is the relationship between the lungs, the pleura and the pleural fluid

A

The pleural fluid creates a moist and slippery surface so that the pleural membranes can slide across one another as the lungs move within the thorax. This helps prevent friction. It also holds the lungs tight against that thoracic wall. The cohesiveness of the fluid between the 2 pleural membranes helps the lung stick to the thoracic cage and holds them stretched and in a partially inflated state even at rest.

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20
Q

How do type 2 cells help minimize the amount of fluid present in the alveoli

A

By transporting solutes, followed by water out of the alveolar air space.

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21
Q

Describe what is physically happening during inspiration

A

In quiet breathing the diaphragm contracts and drops down toward the abdomen. The external intercostal and scalene muscles contract and pull the ribs outward and out. This broadens the rib cage and thoracic volume increases, pressure decreases, and air flows into the lungs.

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22
Q

How do you calculate the partial pressure of one has in a mixture of gases

A

Pgas= Patm × % of gas

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23
Q

What happens to the partial pressures of individual gasses if dry air is suddenly humidified

A

The pressure of water vapor dilutes the contribution of other gasses to the total pressure

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24
Q

For gases, what happens to pressure and volume in a closed container

A

As volume decreases, pressure increases. There is an inverse relationship between pressure and volume.

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25
Q

How does the respiratory system create changes in volume

A

The muscle contractions increase the volume of the chest cavity

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26
Q

What happens to the diaphragm during inspiration

A

During inspiration the diaphragm contracts and becomes flat

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27
Q

Which muscles are contracting during and inspiration in quiet breathing

A

The inspiratory muscles consist of a external intercostal muscles, diaphragm, sternocleidomastoids and scalenes,

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28
Q

Which muscles are r used for contraction in active expiration

A

Internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles

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29
Q

Explain why puncturing the pleural membrane causes lung to collapse

A

The pleural cavity is normally at sub atmosphere pressure. So opening the pleural cavity to the atmosphere allows air to flow into the cavity. This causes the bond between the pleural membranes to break which normally holds the lung to the chest wall. The chest wall expands outward while the elastic lung collapses to an unstretched state.

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30
Q

Does a lung of high compliance require additional force to stretch it or is it easily stretched

A

It is easily stretched

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31
Q

Define compliance

A

The ability of the lung to stretch

/\ V/ /\P

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32
Q

What is elastance

A

The ability to resist being deformed and the ability to return to its original shape when deformity force is removed

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33
Q

Does a high compliance lung always at high elastance? Explain.

A

False. Compliance is the reciprocal of elastance. A lung that stretches easily has probably lost its elastic tissue and will not return to its resting volume when stretching force is removed.

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34
Q

What happens to compliance and elastance in the disease state of emphysema

A

Elastin fibers of the lung are destroyed in this disease. This will cause high compliance and the lungs will stretch easily during inspiration. They also have decreased elastance, so they do not recoil to their resting position during expiration.

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35
Q

What happens to alveolar pressure to cause you to inhale

A

It decreases to about 1 mm Hg below atmospheric pressure with the increase in volume from the contraction of inspiratory muscles

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36
Q

What are some factors that create resistance to stretch in the lung

A

Surface tension from the fluid in the alveoli

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37
Q

What is the function of surfactant

A

It reduces surface tension of alveolar fluid and decreases resistance of the lung to stretch

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38
Q

What is surfactant

A

Are molecules that disrupt cohesive forces between water molecules by substituting themselves for water at the surface

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39
Q

According to the law of LaPlace, if 2 alveoli have equal surface tension, will the smaller one have a higher or lower internal pressure

A

Higher internal pressure

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40
Q

What happens to premature babies who have not produced surfactant

A

They have low compliance lungs and their lungs can collapse each time they exhale. They use a lot of energy to expand their collapse lungs with each breath. Because of this they develop newborn respiratory distress syndrome. They require rapid treatment or risk a 50 percent chance of dying, some require artificial ventilation.

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41
Q

Relationship between flow, pressure and resistance

A

Flow Is directly proportional to change in pressure and inversely related to resistance

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42
Q

3 factors to resistance

A
  1. Systems length
  2. The viscosity of the substance flowing through the system
  3. The radius of the tubes in the system
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43
Q

What is the most significant factor of affecting resistance in the airways

A

The radius of the airways

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44
Q

What airway of the respiratory system is a site of variable resistance

A

Bronchioles because they are collapsible tubes

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45
Q

What happens to resistance and air flow when bronchioles constrict

A

Resistance increases and air flow decreases into the alveoli

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46
Q 
Do the following dilate or constrict the bronchial diameter
CO2
HISTAMINE 
EPINEPHRINE 
PARASYMPATHETIC OUTPUT
A

Co2–> dilation
Histamine–> constriction
Epinephrine–>dilation
Parasympathetic output–> constriction

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47
Q

Total Pulmonary Ventilation

A

The volume of air moving in and out of the lungs in one minute . Aka minute volume. RR × Vt =TPV

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48
Q

Anatomic Dead Space

A

This is the conducting system part of the respiratory system where air enters, but is not involved with gas exchange with the blood

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49
Q

How is alveolar ventilation different from total pulmonary ventilation and which is most important

A

Alveolar ventilation is the volume of fresh air that reaches the alveoli each minute. This does not include dead space air. TPV includes dead space air. Alveolar ventilation includes is a more efficient measurement

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50
Q

The additional air inhaled after a normal inspiration

A

Inspiratory reserve volume

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51
Q

Residual volume

A

The minimum amount of air always present in the respiratory system after blowing out all you can

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52
Q

Tidal volume

A

The amount of air taken in during a single normal inspiration

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53
Q

The extra amount of air actively exhaled after a normal exhalation

A

Expiratory reserve volume

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54
Q

Explain how ventilation perfusion matching works when you are exercising

A

During exercise BP rises and the normally closed apical capillary beds open to ensure increased cardiac output be can fully oxygenated and meet metabolic demands. The body attempts to match air flow and blood flow in each section of the lung by regulating the diameter of arterioles and bronchioles

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55
Q

By what mechanism do gases move between alveoli and the plasma

A

Gas diffuses down its partial pressure gradient from alveoli into capillaries until equilibrium is met

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56
Q

4 factors that affect rate of diffusion of gases

A
  1. Surface area
  2. Concentration gradient
  3. Barrier permeability
  4. Diffusion distance
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57
Q

Formula that relates factors that affect rate of diffusion (FICKs)

A

Diffusion rate

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58
Q

What is the primary factor influencing gas exchange

A

The concentration gradient

59
Q

What 3 factors determine how much gas will dissolve in a liquid

A
  1. Pressure gradient
  2. Solubility of the gas in liquid
  3. Temperature
60
Q

If liquid is exposed to PCO2 of 100 mmHg and a PO2 of 100 mmHg, equal amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide will dissolve in the liquid

A

False

61
Q

Is O2 or CO2 more soluble in body fluids

A

CO2

62
Q

Gases move between liquid and gases phases until what is reached

A

Equilibrium

63
Q

The more soluble a gas is the ________the partial pressure needed to force the gas into solution

A

Less

64
Q

What are the partial pressures of the following at normal atm pressure during normal breathing

  1. PO2 atm
  2. PCO2 atm
  3. PO2 alv
  4. PCO2 alv
A
  1. 160 mmHg
  2. 0.25 mmHg
  3. 100 mm Hg
  4. 40 mmHg
65
Q

During normal breathing partial pressures in alveoli remain constant, why

A

The amount of Oxygen that enters the alveoli with each breath is roughly = to the amount of oxygen that enters the blood. The amount of fresh air that enters the lungs with each breath is only a little more than 10% of the total lung volume at the end of inspiration. Due to the air in the dead space there’s a constant partial pressure of O2.

66
Q

Partial pressure of the following at sea level
P02–> alveoli, arterial, resting cells,venous blood
PC02–> alveoli, arterial, resting cells,venous blood

A

P02–> alveoli 100, arterial 100, resting cells 40, venous blood 40
PC02–> alveoli 40, arterial 40, resting cells 46, venous blood 46

67
Q

How does P02 change with increased alveolar ventilation or decreased alveolar ventilation

A

Increased P02/decreased P02

68
Q

How does PC02 change with increased alveolar ventilation or decreased alveolar ventilation

A

Decreased PC02/ increased PC02

69
Q

Diagram a single alveolus and label cells that are found on the walls and associated

A

Liquid layer, alveolar air space. Basal lamina, ma macrophages, endothelial cells if capillaries, type I and II alveolar cells, respiratory membrane

70
Q

What 2 cell layers must gases cross to go from alveoli to plasma

A

Alveolar cells and endothelial cells of capillary

71
Q

What additional layer must gases pass from alveoli to blood

A

Basement membrane

72
Q

What are the components of the respiratory membrane

A

Type I alveolar cells, basal lamina, endothelial cells of capillary

73
Q

Explain how emphysema can result in a loss of alveolar surface area

A

Emphysema is most often caused by cigarette smoking. The irritating effect of smoke chemicals and tar in the alveoli activates alveolar macrophages that release elastance and other proteomic enzyme. These destroy elastic fibers of the lung and induce apoptosis of cells, breaking down the walls of the alveoli. The result is high compliance and low elastic recoil with fewer and larger alveoli and less surface area for gas exchange.

74
Q

Explain how fibrotic lung disease can cause decreased oxygen exchange between alveoli and the blood

A

Scar tissue thickens the alveolar wall.

Diffusion of gases through the scar tissue is much slower than normal. This decreases oxygen diffusion into the blood

75
Q

What is pulmonary edema and how is it caused and how does it alter gas exchange

A

It is an accumulation of interstitial fluid in the lungs. This increases the diffusion distance between lung and blood and slows gas exchange, leading to lower P02 levels

76
Q

What is asthma

A

An obstructive lung disease that causes inflammation of the airways–> bronchoconstricion and airway edema. This causes increased airway resistance to airflow and decreased airway ventilation. Leading to decreased 02 in lungs and diffusion rate of 02 across the alveoli and capillaries.

77
Q

Explain how breathing at high altitude results in lower 02

A

The partial pressure of 02 decreases along with atmospheric pressure as you move from sea level to higher altitudes. There is lower oxygen concentration at higher altitudes

78
Q

Where is most of the arterial 02 found

A

98% is in hemoglobin of RBC

79
Q

How many protein subunits are composed Hb molecules of

A

4

80
Q

(Hemoglobin molecules)This group is based around what element and is it a strong bond

A

Iron/binds weakly to oxygen

81
Q

Hb bound to 02 is

A

Oxyhemoglobin

82
Q

As dissolved 02 diffuses into RBCs, what happens to the P02of the surrounding plasma

A

It decreases

83
Q

When 02 binds to Hb then ________02 can diffuse from alveoli into plasma.

A

More

84
Q

Percent Saturation of hb

A

The amount of 02 bound to Hb at any given P02

85
Q

At 100%, all possible binding sites are

A

Bound

86
Q

At the cells, dissolved 02 in the plasma_______ the cells. This disturbs the __________ so 02 dissociated from Hb, obeying the Law of ____

A

Enters
Equilibrium
Mass

87
Q

In the tissues, the P02 of the plasma reflects the P02 of the__________

A

Cells

88
Q

In the oxygen hemoglobin disociation curve the ____________determines the ____________

A

% P02

Saturation of Hb

89
Q

Below P02 of 60 mmHg, where curve is steeper, small changes in P02 cause relatively ________ release of 02 from Hb

A

Large

90
Q

An increase in pH___________ Hb’s affinity for 02

A

Increase

91
Q

An increase in temperature__________ Hb’s affinity for 02

A

Decreases

92
Q

An increase in PC02___________ Hb’s affinity for 02

A

Decreases

93
Q

An increase in 2,3-DPG___________ Hb’s affinity for 02

A

Decreases

94
Q

A left shift in the curve indicates___________ binding affinity for 02

A

Increased

95
Q

A right shift in the curve indicates___________ binding affinity for 02

A

Decreased

96
Q

Under what conditions is cellular production of 2,3 DPG increased

A

Chronic hypoxia or extended periods of low 02

97
Q

Fetal hb

A

It has 2 gamma chains instead 2 beta chains. This change in hb structure changes its 02 binding affinity. This enhances the ability of it to bind oxygen in the low oxygen environment of the placenta

98
Q

Where would you expect to see the highest affinity

Active tissue or lungs

A

In the lungs

99
Q

What are the 3 ways C02 is transported in the blood

A
  1. C02 dissolved in plasma (7%)
  2. HbC02, carbaminohemoglobin (23%)
  3. HC03, bicarbonate ion (70%)
100
Q

The name of hb bound to C02 is

A

HbC02, carbaminohemoglobin

101
Q

Equation for C02 and bicarbonate, what enzyme catalyzes it

A

C02 +H20<===>H +HC03-

Carbonic anhydrase

102
Q

What happens to pH when C02 levels rise

A

pH decreases

103
Q

Compare the function of the dorsal and ventral respiration groups of neurons in the medulla

A

Dorsal control mostly muscles of inspiration, ventral controls Respiratory rhythm, control for active expiration

104
Q

List the 3 chemical factors that affect ventilation. Where are the sensory receptor located for each

A
  1. C02–>medullary central chemoreceptors (BBB), peripheral chemoreceptors Carotid (primary) and aortic bodies in the arteries
  2. 02–> peripheral chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies of arteries
  3. pH–> peripheral chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies of arteries
105
Q

What is the primary stimulus for changes in ventilation

A

Carbon dioxide

106
Q

Explain the strategic significance of the location of the peripheral chemo receptors

A

The chemoreceptors for 02 and C02 are strategically associated with the arterial circulation. If too little 02 is present in arterial blood destined for the brain and other tissues, the rate and depth of breathing increases. If the rate of C02 production by the cells exceeds the rate of C02 removal by the lungs, arterial PCO2 increases and ventilation is intensified to match C02 removal to production. If plasma pH decreases, aortic and carotid gliomas cells increase ventilation

107
Q

Where are the limited ranges of the chemical signals the stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors receptor

A

P02 less than 60 mmHg
Decreased pH
Increased PC02

108
Q

How are central chemoeceptors able to respond to elevated blood PC02

A

Central receptors in the Medulla mediate ventilation changes in response to pH. A decrease in PC02 will trigger a decrease in ventilation.

109
Q

A decrease and pH will trigger what to ventilation

A

Increase in ventilation

110
Q

A decrease in arterial PO2 below 60 mmHg will trigger what to ventilation

A

Increase in ventilation

111
Q

An increase in PC02 will cause what to happen to the ph and this will trigger a 2-3 acidosis to respond a/an ___________ in ventilation

A

Decrease in pH, increase in ventilation

112
Q

The upper respiratory tract includes

A

Nasal cavity, larynx, mouth,pharynx

113
Q

Pulmonary ventilation refers to the

A

Pulmonary ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs

114
Q

Alveolar ventilation refers to

A

Movement of air into and out of the alveoli

115
Q

The sites of gas exchange within the lungs are

A

Alveoli

116
Q

Type I alveolar cells allow rapid

A

Diffusion of gasses through their thin membranes

117
Q

When the diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract

A

The volume of the thorax increases

118
Q

In quiet breathing, inspiration involves _______and expiration is_______

A

Muscular contractions, passive

119
Q

If a student inhales as deeply as possible and blows the air out until he cannot exhale anymore, the amount of air that he expelled is

A

Vital capacity

120
Q

Flow of air is directly proportional to_______________ and flow_______________ as resistance of the system ____________

A

A pressure gradient

Decreases

Increases

121
Q

Histamines primary role in the respiratory system is as a

A

Bronco constrictor

122
Q

Damage to the type II cells of the lungs would contribute to

A

Alveolar collapse

123
Q

The partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood is approximately

A

100

124
Q

The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the cells of peripheral tissue is approximately

A

46

125
Q

Of the factors that influence diffusion of respiratory gasses the most variable and therefore important factor to consider is the

A

Concentration gradient or partial pressure difference

126
Q

At a PO2 of 70 mmHg, normal temperature and ph, hemoglobin is ________% saturated with oxygen

A

Over 90%

127
Q

What would make the oxygen hemoglobin curve shift right

A
  • Oxygen leaves hemoglobin–>lower affinity
  • Increased temperature
  • Increased CO2
  • Decreased pH–> increased H+ concentration
  • 2,3DPG–> Hypoxia
128
Q

What would make the oxy hemoglobin curve shift left

A 
Oxygen loads on to hemoglobin-->higher affinity 
• Decrease temperature
• Decreased carbon dioxide
• Increased PH
• Gamma globin/fetal hemoglobin
129
Q

Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as

A

Bicarbonate ions

130
Q

Most important chemical regulator of respiration is

A

Carbon dioxide

131
Q

The expiratory neurons control the

A

Abdominal muscles and internal intercostals

132
Q

The inspiratory neurons control the

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals

133
Q

The disease most closely associated to a decrease surface area for gas exchange is

A

Emphysema

134
Q

Alexandra is breathing in a gas composition that contains an increased concentration of C02. How would the pulmonary arteries react to this and why

A

Constrict to decrease blood flow through the alveoli

135
Q

Systemic arterioles constrict and pulmonary arterial dilate when

A

P02 increases

136
Q

Bronchioles and systemic arterioles dilate when

A

PC02 increases

137
Q

Systemic arterioles dilate and pulmonary arterial constrict

A

P02 decreases

138
Q

Bronchioles and systemic arterioles constrict when

A

PC02 decreases

139
Q

Where does the change for CO2 and 02 take place once in circulation

A

C02 changes at the lungs and 02 at the tissues, otherwise constant in circulation

140
Q

Cooperative binding of oxygen

A

The 1st oxygen binds and causes a 3-D shape change in the globin chains that facilitate the binding of the next oxygen and so on

141
Q

What happens when there is a lot of C02 in the plasma

A

When there is a lot of carbon dioxide it changes the shape of hemoglobin and throws oxygen off. This reduces the affinity for oxygen.

142
Q

The contraction of the inspiratory muscles occurs in response to output from the __________ and ________

A

Pons and medulla

143
Q

Hemoglobin acts as a buffer to

A

H+, soaks up hydrogen to maintain a pH within set limits

Physiology (9 decks)

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