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Psyc 365 > Chapter 11 > Flashcards

Chapter 11 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 5 properties of language?

A

Symbolic, structured or rule governed, conveys meaning, generative/creative, permits displacement

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2
Q

What does it mean that language is symbolic?

A

Arbitrary symbols represent specific objects/actions

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3
Q

What does it mean that language is structured/rule governed?

A

Certain combinations are allowed, and others are not.

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4
Q

What does it mean that language conveys meaning?

A

Once people know the symbols and rules, they can communicate ideas and thoughts.

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5
Q

What does it mean that language is generative/creative?

A

Symbols of language can be combined to create an infinite number of messages- express ideas that have never been expressed before.

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6
Q

What does it mean that language permits displacement?

A

Can refer to objects or events that are not physically present.

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7
Q

What are the 2 additional properties of language?

A

Hierarchical and universal

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8
Q

What does it mean that language is hierarchical?

A

Sounds—> letters—> words—-> phrases—-> sentences—->conversations/paragraphs

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9
Q

What does it mean that language is universal?

A

All cultures have language, language development is similar across cultures. (ex: if no one signs, deaf children will develop their own language!)

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10
Q

What are phonemes?

A

The most basic unit of speech sounds.

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11
Q

How many phonemes does the English language have?

A

44

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12
Q

What happens if you change a phoneme?

A

It changes the meaning of a word

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13
Q

What is a morpheme?

A

Smallest units of meaning in language. Some are words, some are suffixes and prefixes.

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14
Q

What is morphology?

A

The study of how we create words by combining morphemes.

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15
Q

What are semantics?

A

The meanings of words and sentences

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16
Q

What is syntax?

A

Grammatical rules that govern how we organize words into sentences-related to the fact that language is structured.

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17
Q

What is grammar comprised of?

A

Comprised of both syntax and morphology.

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18
Q

What are pragmatics?

A

Knowledge of the practical application of language. The social rules and context that can affect understanding and word choice. Formal versus informal

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19
Q

What is prosody?

A

Its not what you say, but how you say it. Uses emphasis to convey diffferent meanings, can also disambiguate the meanings of sentences.

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20
Q

How do we perceive phonemes (continuously or categorically?)

A

Categorically, even though many phonemes differ along a continuum (time between mouth opening and vocal chords vibrating)

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21
Q

What is the phonemic restoration effect?

A

When we “hear” phonemes that are masked by noise. Use context to fill in the blank (top down perception)

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22
Q

What is speech segmentation?

A

We perceive speech as a series of separate words but there are actually no gaps between! Use coarticulation when speaking-our mouth changes shape as we anticipate our next word and thus phonemes overlap.

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23
Q

What was Pollack and Picketts study on speech segmentation?

A

Recorded peoples conversations as they waited to take part in a study, then played back individual words from the conversation-people were only 50% correct on guessing the words!

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24
Q

What is the conclusion from Pollack and Picketts study?

A

We need context to perceive words because that tells us how phonemes will be affected!

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25
Q

What type of language is spread out across space versus time?

A

Space-written

Time-spoken

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26
Q

What type of language can people control the rate of input?

A

Written

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27
Q

What type of language relies more on WM?

A

Listening

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28
Q

What type of language encounters more error free input?

A

Written (listeners deal with accents, poor grammar, sloppy pronunciation).

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29
Q

What type of language gives discrete boundaries between words?

A

Written

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30
Q

What type of language gets additional auditory cues?

A

Listening

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31
Q

What type of language do children learn more easily?

A

Spoken language

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32
Q

What type of language do adults learn more easily?

A

Written language.

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33
Q

What are the similar cognitive processes that underlie listening and written language?

A

Perceive/understand words, then extract meaning.

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34
Q

What is the correlation between reading and oral comprehension tests?

A

0.90.

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35
Q

What is the word superiority effect?

A

Letters are easier to recognize when they are part of a word- compared to a non-word or letter alone.

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36
Q

What test is used to test the word superiority effect?

A

Show people a word, a letter, or a non word. Then, block out word, and give people two letters. Ask which one they just saw. Results: People are much faster in the word condition.

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37
Q

What is the word frequency effect?

A

Process high frequency/common words more quickly than low frequency/less common words.

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38
Q

What is the lexical decision task?

A

A way to test the word frequency effect. Shows a list of words (some are actual words, some not). Asks if they are words or not. Results: People are typically much slower on the list with words that are more complicated/less known.

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39
Q

How can eye tracking test the word frequency effect?

A

Shows that people fixate longer on low-frequency words when reading.

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40
Q

What is psycholinguistics?

A

Interdisciplinary field focusing on how people use language to communicate ideas.

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41
Q

What was Chomsky’s approach to psycholinguistics?

A

Languages share universal patterns of grammar, language is innate, modular in humans. We are born with an understanding of these patterns (language acquisition device). Also focused heavily on grammar rather than conveying meaning.

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42
Q

What is a sentences surface structure (Chomsky)?

A

The words that are actually spoken or written

43
Q

What is the deep structure of a sentence (Chomsky)?

A

The underlying meaning of the sentence.

44
Q

What are some critcisms of Chomsky’s idea that language shares a universal pattern of grammar?

A

Some non-European languages don’t share these patterns

45
Q

What are some criticisms of Chomsky’s idea that language is innate and modular in humans?

A

Language is not a special skill, language is interconnected with other aspects of cognition.

46
Q

What is the cognitive functional approach?

A

Emphasizes that cognitive processes are intertwined with language comprehension. Also emphasizes the function of language communicating meaning. (language guides attention to a specific event).

47
Q

What are some factors that affect sentence comprehension?

A

Negatives, Passive voice, Complex syntax, Ambiguity

48
Q

How do negatives affect sentence comprehension?

A

Negatives make the sentence harder to understand. Can be direct (not, no) or implied (rejected, barred, disagreed). If there are more negatives in a sentence, comprehension declines further.

49
Q

How did Clark and Chase use the sentence verification task to test how negatives affect sentence comprehension?

A

“Heart is above the plus” “plus isn’t above the heart”-must faster reaction time for the second.

50
Q

How does passive voice affect comprehension?

A

Active voice is easier to understand as it is more basic and has fewer words

51
Q

How did Ferreira et al test passive voice and comprehension?

A

“Does this sentence describe a likely event?”-The man bit the dog, versus the dog was bitten by the man. Better verification for the first one

52
Q

How does complex syntax affect comprehension?

A

Nested structure is more difficult to understand-taxes working memory

53
Q

How does ambiguity affect comprehension?

A

Words/sentences can have more than one meaning (ex: newspaper headlines) Resolve using prosody

54
Q

What are garden path sentences?

A

1st portion of a sentence suggests a parsing scheme that is incorrect-reader is lured into a dead-end and then must reinterpret a sentence.

55
Q

How do we parse sentences and resolve temporary ambiguities? (garden path)

A

1) Syntax-first approach

2) The interactionist approach

56
Q

What is the syntax-first approach?

A

First, parse a sentence based on grammar then correct using meaning (if necessary).

57
Q

What is the Principle of Late closure (Syntax first approach)

A

As we read, each new word in a sentence is assumed to belong to the current phrase, until something doesn’t make sense. Then we use semantics to correct the parsing!

58
Q

What is the interactionist approach?

A

When both syntax and semantics are used all along!

59
Q

What are pragmatic inferences?

A

Using knowledge to draw conclusions that go beyond the information provided by the words alone-uses prosody

60
Q

What is instrument inference?

A

Inferences about tools/methods even when not directly stated (example: John was pounding the nail-assume he did this with a hammer).

61
Q

What is anaphoric inference?

A

Inferences that connect an item in one sentence to an item in another sentence

62
Q

What is causal inference?

A

Inference that an event in a sentence was caused by something previously mentioned.

63
Q

What is a situation model?

A

Mental representation of what is being described-getting pulled into a world when reading is an example.

64
Q

What was Stanfield and Zwaans experiment on the situation model?

A

Had people read simple sentences (ex: The eagle was in the sky, the eagle was in it’s nest). Then, were shown a photo either matching the description they got, or not, and asked if it was the same. People were faster to say yes if the photo matched the “mental stimulation”.

65
Q

What conclusion can we draw from Stanfield and Zwaans experiment?

A

We create perceptions to match the situation we are hearing about or reading about.

66
Q

What was Horton et Rapps experiment on the situation model?

A

Had people read simple stories with one sentence swapped (Melanie was watching TV, victim was being stalked by a vampire, suddenly Melanies mother appeared in front of/behind the TV). Then were asked if the victim was being stalked by a vampire. Group A (tv blocked) were significantly slower, as in their mental model, the TV was blocked.

67
Q

What is the typical rate of speech and the typical vocabulary of college educated students?

A

Rate of speech: 3 words/second

Vocab: 75 000 words

68
Q

What does speech require us to do?

A

Choose words carefully-to convey meaning, phonological information, prosody, syntactic arrangement.

69
Q

What are some strategies used to reduce processing demands in speech?

A

Preformulation and underspecification

70
Q

What is preformulation?

A

Tend to say phrases that were used before, 70% of speech consists of word combinations that that person uses relatively frequently-especially common when speaking quickly.

71
Q

What is underspecification?

A

Producing simplified expressions and expecting the listener to make inferences.

72
Q

How does gesture help us communicate?

A

Provides visual cues for the listener, especially useful for conveying spatial information. Also helps the speaker, suggesting that it is innate (embodied cognition) and helps us organize our own thoughts.

73
Q

What was an experiment done to demonstrate how gestures help us communicate?

A

Children walked through a bunch of mini rooms, each had toys in them. Later were asked to describe what the toys were. When the kid said what was in each room, he tapped on the desk to convey spatial information.

74
Q

What was the follow up study done on the original gesture study?

A

Asked children to point at where the objects were versus had the experimenter point-found that children gesturing on their own did better.

75
Q

What are discourse markers?

A

Words or phrases that do not contribute directly to the meaning of the utterance-contributes a lot to understanding

76
Q

How do discourse markers contribute to understanding?

A

Helpful to non-native speakers gives clues to the listener (example: anyways signifies a return to a previous topic).

77
Q

What are hesitation pauses?

A

Pauses in speech often characterized by speech disfluencies (Uh… ummmm)- occur during speech planning. More common to preced words for which there are many different and related synonyms (with different connotations).

78
Q

What types of professors have more hesitation pauses during lecture?

A

Professors for the social sciences or humanities, because there are more alternative words in these types of lectures compared to a natural science lecture.

79
Q

How do our pauses differ depending on the length of the pause?

A

Short delay: uh
Long delay: um
Reveals that we also monitor our planning. People estimate how long it takes them to retrieve a word, even before they have retrieved it.

80
Q

What are slips of the tongue?

A

Sound or whole words rearraged, 3 broad classes.

81
Q

What is an anticipation error (phonemes)

A

Cup of coffee— cuff of coffee

82
Q

What is a perservation error (phonemes)

A

Beef noodle soup— beef needle soup

83
Q

What is metathesis? (phonemes)

A

Night life— knife light (phonemic exchange)

Snow flurries— flow snurries (phonemic sequence exchange)

84
Q

What is a blend (phonemes)

A

Emergency cardiac— emergiac

85
Q

What is an addition (phonemes)

A

Soap suds— soap studs

86
Q

What is a deletion (phonemes)

A

Specific— pacific

87
Q

What is anticipation (morphemes)

A

You guys— yous guys

88
Q

What is addition (morphemes)

A

He’s letting them know— hes letting them knowing

89
Q

What is morpheme exchange (morpheme)

A

He packed 2 trunks—- he packs 1 trunked

90
Q

What is morpheme stranding? (morpheme)

A

He packed 2 trunks—- he trunked 2 packs

91
Q

What is morpheme shift? (morphemes)

A

If she decides to try—- if she decide to tries

92
Q

What is addition and deletion (morphemes)

A

Complexity-complexibility

Incapable-capable

93
Q

What is anticipation (word errors)

A

Chocolate chip cookie dough— chocolate dough cookie dough

94
Q

What is perseveration (word errors)

A

Stitch in time saves nine—- stitch in time saves time

95
Q

What is word exchange (word errors)

A

Let the cat out of the house— let the house out of the cat

96
Q

What is substitution (word errors)

A

Set the table— set the chair

97
Q

What are number agreement errors? (word errors)

A

The family of cats was—- the family of cats were (more common with more obvious plurals

98
Q

What are spoonerisms (Reverand William Archibald Spooner)

A

Special kind of metathesis- involves switching the first phonemes of words to form a humorous alternative. (usually not spontaneous)

99
Q

What is syntactic coordination?

A

In conversation, people tend to mirror one anothers grammatical constructions.

100
Q

How did Brannigan et al test syntactic coordination?

A

Had 2 people (research assistant and participant) separated by a screen. Both have a matching set of cards. Research assistant describes first card (participant finds it), then participant describes the next. Found that the participants description of the photos mirrored the grammatic structure of the research assistant.

101
Q

What is semantic coordination?

A

In conversation, try to make sure the listener has the info necessary to understand what we are saying.

102
Q

What is the given-new contract (semantic coordination)

A

Idea that sentences typically include/imply some old (given) info, and some new info.

103
Q

What are directives (direct and indirect)?

A

Asking someone to do something
Direct: very obvious (What time is it)
Indirect:less overt (do you happen to have the time?)

Psyc 365 (10 decks)

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