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Psych Biology > Cognition, Consciousness, and Language > Flashcards

Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards

1
Q

Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development

A

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages

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2
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

(birth-2 yrs) Focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions. Object permanence ends this stage

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3
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

(2-6 yrs) Focues on symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration (tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation or object at a time)

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4
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

(6-11 yrs) Focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (concrete) objects

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5
Q

Formal operational Stage

A

(> 11 yrs) Focuses on abstract thought and problem solving

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6
Q

What does problem solving require?

A

Identification and understanding of the problem, generation and testing of potential solutions, and evaluation of results

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7
Q

Mental set

A

A pattern of approach for a given problem

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8
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

The tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized, which may create barriers to problem solving

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9
Q

Types of Problem Solving

A

Trial-and-error, algorithms, deductive reasoning, and inductive reasoning

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10
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Deriving conclusions from general rules (theory testing)

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11
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Deriving generalizations from evidence (theory building)

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12
Q

Heuristics

A

shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions

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13
Q

Biases

A

Exist when an experimenter or decision maker is unable to objectively evaluate information

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14
Q

Intuition

A

“A gut feeling” regarding a particular decision; the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence

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15
Q

Methods that may lead to erroneous or problematic decisions

A

Heuristics, biases, intuition, and emotions

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16
Q

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

A

Proposes 7 areas of intelligence: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

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17
Q

What contributes to variations in intellectual ability

A

Combinations of environment, education, and genetics

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18
Q

Alertness

A

The state of being awake and able to think, perceive, process, and express information

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19
Q

What type of waves predominate on Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

Alpha and Beta waves

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20
Q

Stage 1 sleep

A

Light sleep, dominated by theta waves on EEG

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21
Q

Stage 2 sleep

A

Slightly deeper than Stage 1 sleep and includes theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes

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22
Q

Stages 3 and 4 sleep

A

Deep (slow-wave) sleep (SWS) –> Delta waves predominate on EEG (low frequency, high voltage sleep waves). SWS is associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation, as well as increased growth hormone release

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23
Q

What stages of sleep do most sleep-wake disorders occur in?

A

During Stage 3 and 4 non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep

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24
Q

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

A

Also called paradoxical sleep –> mind appears close to awake on EEG, but the person is asleep. Eye movements and body paralysis occur in this stage, as well as most dreaming. procedural memory consolidation associated with this stage.

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25
Q

Sleep cycle

A

Approximately 90 minutes for adults.

Normal cycle is Stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM –> REM becomes more frequent toward the morning

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26
Q

What promotes sleepiness at night?

A

Changes in light in evening trigger release of melatonin by the pineal gland, resulting in sleepiness

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27
Q

Affect of cortisol on sleep cycle

A

Cortisol levels increase in the early morning and help promote wakefulness

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28
Q

Dyssomnias

A

Sleep disorders that involves difficulty falling or remaining asleep such as insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and sleep deprivation

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29
Q

Parasomnias

A

Involves abnormal movements or behaviours when falling asleep, sleeping, or waking up –> includes night terrors and sleep walking

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30
Q

What are the types of consciousness-altering drugs

A

Depressants, stimulants, opiates, and hallucinogens

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31
Q

Which brain pathway mediates drug addiction

A

Mesolimbic pathway; includes nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area
–> dopamine is the main neurotransmitter in this pathway

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32
Q

Depressants

A

Promotes or mimic GABA activity; reduces nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety.

Includes Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

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33
Q

Stimulants

A

Promotes dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at synaptic cleft; increase in arousal in nervous system

Includes amphetamines, cocaine, ectasy

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34
Q

Opiates and opioids

A

These compounds bind to opioid receptors in the PNS andCNS, causing decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria. Can cause death by respiratory depression

Includes heroin, morphine, opium

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35
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Distortion of reality, sympathetic response

Includes LSD, mushrooms, and mescaline

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36
Q

Selective attention

A

Allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention

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37
Q

Divided attention

A

Uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time

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38
Q

Components of language

A

Consists of phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics

39
Q

Phonology

A

Refers to the actual sound of speech; there are about 40 speech sounds of phonemes in English

40
Q

Morphology

A

Refers to the building blocks of words, such as rules for pluralization, past tense, and so forth. Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes, each of which connotes a particular meaning

41
Q

Semantics

A

Refers to the meanings of words

42
Q

Syntax

A

Refers to the rules dictating word order

43
Q

Pragmatics

A

Refers to the changes in language delivery depending on context and preexisting knowledge. Pragmatics are affected by prosody; the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

44
Q

3 theories of language development

A

Nativist (biological) theory, learning (behaviourist) theory, and social interactionist theory

45
Q

Nativist theory

A

Explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD), a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules

46
Q

Learning theory

A

Explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers

47
Q

Social interactionist theory

A

Explains language acquisition as a motivation to communicate and interact with others

48
Q

which hemisphere of the brain controls speech

A

The left hemisphere (usually the dominant hemisphere)

49
Q

Where is motor function of speech controlled

A

Broca’s area

50
Q

Where is language comprehension controlled

A

Wernicke’s area

51
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

Results from damage to Broca’s area; nonfluent aphasia where generating each word requires great effort

52
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Results from damage to Wernicke’s area; fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension

53
Q

Arcuate fasciculus

A

Connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas; a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production

54
Q

Conduction aphasia

A

Results in damage to the Arcuate fasciculus, marked by the inability to repeat words heard despite intact speech generation and comprehension

55
Q

Dual-coding theory

A

A theory that states that both verbal and visual images are used to process and store information

56
Q

Information-processing model

A

Has 4 key components:

  • Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
  • Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making
  • Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification)
  • Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
57
Q

Cognitive development

A

The development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the life span

58
Q

Assimilation

A

The process of classifying new information into existing schemata

59
Q

Accomodation

A

The process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information

60
Q

Primary circular reactions

A

The repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb; usually, the behaviour is repeated because the child finds it soothing

61
Q

Secondary circular reactions

A

Occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body; these behaviours are often repeated because the child gets a response from the environment (e.g. a child throwing toys from a high chair)

62
Q

Object permanence

A

The key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage in development; the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view

63
Q

Symbolic thinking

A

Refers to the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination

64
Q

Egocentrism

A

Refers to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

65
Q

Centration

A

The tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation

66
Q

Les Vygotsky

A

A prominent educational psychologist, proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language.

67
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

Consists of problem solving skills

68
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

More related to use of learned skills and knowledge

69
Q

Delirium

A

Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (non-psychological) causes

70
Q

Algorithm

A

A formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem

71
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Used when we try to decide how likely something is

72
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

73
Q

Base rate fallacy

A

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

74
Q

Disconfirmation principle

A

The evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work, but the presence of a confirmation bias may prevent an individual from eliminating this solution

75
Q

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

76
Q

Belief perseverance

A

Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.

77
Q

Emotion

A

The subjective experience of a person in a certain situation; can affect decision-making

78
Q

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A

Standardized tests generate an IQ test..original formula for calculating IQ is mental age divided by chronological age times 100

79
Q

Consciousness

A

One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world

80
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

records an average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain

81
Q

Beta waves

A

Have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration.

82
Q

Alpha waves

A

Occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower and more synchronized than beta waves

83
Q

Activation-synthesis theory

A

Theory that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry which can mimic incoming sensory information. Cortex then tries to stitch this unrelated information together, resulting in a dream that is both bizarre and somewhat familiar

84
Q

Problem solving dream theory

A

States that dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping

85
Q

Cognitive Process Dream Theory

A

States that dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

86
Q

Most sleep-wake disorders occur in what type of sleep

A

NREM

87
Q

Insomnia

A

Difficulty falling or remaining asleep; most common sleep-wake disorder

88
Q

Narcolepsy

A

A condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

89
Q

Cataplexy

A

Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger

90
Q

Marijuana

A

Active chemical in marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Psychologically, effects seem to fall into the categories of stimulant, depression, and hallucinogen

91
Q

Mesolimbic reward pathway

A

One of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain and highly related to drug addiction. Pathway includds the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them called the medial forebrain bundle (MFB).

92
Q

Timeline of language acquisition

A

9-12 months: babbling
12-18 months: about one word/month
18-20 months: “explosion of language” and combining words
2-3 years: longer sentences ( 3 words or more)
5 years: language rules largely mastered

93
Q

Whorfian/ linguistic relativity hypothesis

A

Suggests that our perception of reality (the way we think about the world), is determined by the content of language

Psych Biology (11 decks)

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