A&P Exam 1 Flashcards
(117 cards)
1
Q
what is anatomy
A
study of structure or form
(not simply identification by name or location)
2
Q
what is physiology
A
study of function
3
Q
why are anatomy and physiology interdependent
A
at all levels of organization
how its built determines its ability/function
if we alter anatomy at any level we alter the physiology
4
Q
levels of organization
A
- atoms
- molecules
- macromolecules
- organelles
- cells
- tissues
- organs
- organ systems
- organisms
5
Q
Molecules
A
O2, CO2- amino acids
6
Q
macromolecules
A
group of amino acids
phospholipids
7
Q
cells
A
macromolecules together
shape determines function
different sizes
8
Q
tissues
A
cells together
9
Q
organs
A
tissues together
10
Q
homeostasis
A
maintenance of a relatively constant interval during exposure to a changing external environment
stressor: anything that threatens homeostasis-changes internal environment
dynamic state in which body’s internal environment is maintained with normal range
11
Q
internal environment
A
Includes extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid
stressors
12
Q
homeostatic mechanism
A
- receptors
- control center
- effectors
13
Q
receptors
A
pick up on levels
14
Q
control center
A
knows what levels ought to be
set point
initiates response
15
Q
effectors
A
muscles-contract
glands-secrete
16
Q
feedback
A
- negative feedback
- positive feedback
17
Q
negative feedback
A
stops the action
turns in the opposite
discourages
stimulus reversed
reverses trends
very common
routine maintenance of homeostasis
18
Q
positive feedback
A
encourages the actions
encourages the trend
encourage same behavior
continue trend
infrequent, not abnormal
specific short lived functions
ex) childbirth- tissues stretch, contractions strengthen
19
Q
organization of human body
A
- appendicular portion
- axial portion
20
Q
appendicular portion
A
appendages
21
Q
axial portion
A
head trunk
A. dorsal cavity
- backbone side, posterior
- cranial cavity
- vertebral canal (spinal cavity)
B. Ventral cavity
- belly side, front/ anterior
- thoracic cavity
- above diaphragm
- abdominopelvic cavity
- below diaphragm
- divided by diaphragm
22
Q
membranes of ventral cavity
A
- parietal membranes
- thoracic cavity
- abdominopelvic cavity
- visceral membranes
23
Q
Parietal membranes
A
Line body cavities
inside
24
Q
thoracic cavity
A
parietal and visceral pleura
pleural cavity, serous fluid
Found within the thoracic cavity
Think chest
25
abdominopelvic cavity
Parietal and visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity, serous fluid
Found within the abdominal pelvic cavity
Think abdominopelvic pelvic
26
visceral membrane
Cover organs within body cavities
outside
27
relative position
1. superior/ inferior
2. anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal)
3. medial/lateral/bilateral/ipsilateral/contralateral
4. proximal/distal
5. superficial/deep
6. anatomical position
28
superior/ inferior
Above, below
29
anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal)
Front, back
30
medial/lateral/bilateral/ipsilateral/contralateral
Middle, outside, one on each side, same side of body, opposite side of body (contrasting)
31
proximal/distal
Closer, further
only appendages
Look at attachments
32
superficial/deep
Muscles on left side are relatively deep to muscles on the right side
Muscles on the right side are relatively superficial to muscles on the left side
33
anatomical position
Standardized
Standing erect
Facing forward
Upper limbs at sides
Palms forward
34
body sections
1. sagittal
2. transverse
3. frontal/coronal
35
sagittal
left/right
midsagittal (median)
parasagittal
36
transverse
horizontal
cross section
superior/inferior
37
frontal/coronal
coronal
front/back
38
cylindrical organs
1. oblique section
2. cross section
3. longitudinal section
39
oblique section
cut at an angle
anything else
40
cross section
short axis
41
longitudinal section
long section
42
cell membrane
inside and outside of cell
compartmentalize and store
1. general characterics
2. cell membrane structure
3. proteins
4. cholesterols and membrane fluidity
43
general characterics cell membrane
1. maintains integrity of cell
- maintains structure
2. controls entry and exit (selectively permeable)
- fat soluble is okay
- water soluble keep out
ex) 28x higher potassium than outside
3. responsible for compartmentalization
-allows for storage for later
- compartments have special jobs
- efficiency
44
cell membrane structure
1. phospholipid bilayer, hydrophobic tails, hydrophilic heads
-tails face in
-oil layer inside
-head faces out
-triglyceride
-fatty acid chain (lipid)-not water soluble
-saturated (straight)
-unsaturated (bends-double bond)
-phospholipid
-take off bottom and replace with something with phosphorus
-makes it water soluble
45
cell membrane proteins
1. integral proteins
2. peripheral proteins
46
integral proteins
transmembrane protein
ways for substances that aren’t fat soluble to go across membrane
way built determines what it transports
47
peripheral proteins
outside or on surface
doesnt span through
receptors
receive
shape determines what receive
enzymes
help chemical reactions take place
has to have particular shape to interact with certain substances at body temperature
cell surface proteins
self identification
carbohydrate chains
organ transplant and rejection
different self identification proteins
identify as you and your cells
cellular adhesion molecules
holds cells together
some permanent, some temporary
48
cholesterols and membrane fluidity
liver makes it
every membrane has it
steroid hormones
in with fatty acid tails
fills in gaps created by bends
membrane integrity and fluidity
tucks into spaces that are created when body temperature rises
tucks into gaps of bent tails of unsatisfied fatty acids
49
molecular transport
1. random molecular motion
2. differences in concentration establish a gradient
3. membrane permeability
MOST POLAR MOLECULES ARE NOT LIPID SOLUBLES
50
random molecular motion
molecules in entropy (random motion)
51
differences in concentration establish a gradient
gradient cant go from high to low
difference
the molecules go with the gradient
bigger gradient= bigger movement immediately
gross: all molecules on both sides
net movement: the gain or loss
52
membrane permeability
non polar substances (gases, lipids)
electrons are shared equally
ex) oxygen
polar substances (carbohydrates, proteins, charged ions)
electrons are not shared equally
ex) water & ions
transmembrane proteins assist
53
physical (passive) movements into and out of the cell
1. (simple) diffusion
2. movement is with (or down) concentration gradient
3. physiological "steady state" reached
4. factors that influence rate of diffusion ("flux")
5. facilitated diffusion
6. specialized transport protein required
7. movement with concentration gradient
8. osmosis
9. filtration
54
(simple) diffusion
permeable: allowed to go through
random movement, eventually equal out
no cellular required
gradient
molecules move with gradient
membrane permeable to everything
55
factors that influence rate of diffusion (“flux”)
distance (membrane thickness)
thicker-slower
thinner-faster
size of concentration gradient
bigger gradient - bigger movement immediately
smaller gradient- smaller movement immediately
drink a lot of water- dilute (lower concentration), less concentration, ions move at less pronounced rate
temperature
warmer- faster
colder-slower
56
facilitated diffusion
ions polar
helps diffusion
no energy required
still go with gradient
57
specialized transport protein required
channel proteins
doesn’t have to interact, opening
gated
open and closes
respond to ligand, voltage, or mechanical force
carrier proteins
pick up /interact with whatever transporting
conformation shape change
has attachment site
changes shape when transports molecules across the cell membrane (change in physical conformation)
finite number- saturation is possible- all the carriers for particular molecule are occupied (full)
saturation possible
58
osmosis
water
have to have barrier that is selectively permeable
diffusion of water molecules (yes water is polar but it is a very small molecule)
selectively-permeable membrane required
allows water molecules through
does not allow protein through
water moves with its gradient
net movement
high water—> low water
low solute —> high solute
osmotic pressure
ability to lift volume of water
water powerful
greater solutes = greater osmotic pressure
higher solute= higher osmotic pressure
relative solutions
hypertonic= relatively higher osmotic pressure (relatively more solutes)
greater
shrinks
surrounding solution relatively hypertonic
hypotonic= relatively lower osmotic pressure (relatively fewer solutes)
low
swell
surrounding solution relatively hypotonic
relatively more water
isotonic= similar osmotic pressure (similar concentration of solutes)
equal
surrounding solution relatively isotonic
59
filtration
passive
hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure)
molecules (the filtrate) forced through porous membranes
if small enough
concentration differences is not important; size of molecule is
hydrostatic forces apply, movement is bulk flow (not random)
60
cell to cell interactions in the extracellular matrix
1. tight junctions
2. desmosomes
3. hemidesmosomes
4. gap junctions
61
tight junctions
Firmly and closely held together
ex) Shirt scene, continuous stitch
No gaps or spaces
62
desmosomes
ex) Buttons holding cloth
gaps
Something can travel in spaces
Each cell has a portion with cells coming together as one
63
hemidesmosomes
So held to extracellular matrix
important for Epithelial tissues
64
Gap junctions
space
Passageway
cytoplasms of cells are connected and can flow back and forth
Cell to cell communication
smooth and cardiac muscle
65
Categories of tissues
1. epithelial tissues
2. connective tissues
3. muscle tissues
4. nervous tissue
66
epithelial tissue
Tightly packed single (simple) or multiple (stratified) layers of cells
on surface
cell squamous, cuboidal, or columnar
cover organs, line body cavities
form protective barrier
attached to basement membrane
lack blood vessels
reproduce rapidly
bottom most cell attached to basement membrane (plasma membrane) by hemidesmosome
diffusion- limited by distance (thickness)-get nutrients through passive transport
67
connective tissue
cells widely spaced
fibroblast
make protein fibers
macrophages
consume debri- hangout in connective tissue
intracellular material (matrix) fluid (blood) to solid (bone)
protein fibers may be present in matrix
collagenous (collagen) fibers
bundles of thick, flexible fibers
bend, dont stretch
thin collage fibers are called reticular fibers
elastic (elastin) fibers
stretchy
rebound to where started
68
muscle tissue
muscle cells= muscle fibers
many protein filaments in cytoplasm
capable of contraction
not all require neural input
nucleus on inside not outside
69
functions as the integumentary system
coverings & linings- all
keep water in
keep infectious agents out
Protection and immunity
exteroception (sensation)
regulation of body temperature
vitamin D production
excretion (minimal)
70
Tissues associated with the skin
1. simple cuboidal epithelium
2. stratified squamous epithelium
3. glandular epithelium
4. adipose tissue
5.areolar (loose) connective tissue
6. irregular dense fibrous connective tissue
7. smooth muscle
71
simple cuboidal epithelium
Cells anchored to membrane (hemidesmosomes) to connective tissue
Tight junction holds cell to next cell, doesn't leak sweat
72
adipose tissue
Adipocyte (Started as fibroblasts but specialized to store fat)
Cushioning
Temperature regulation
binds skin to what's underneath
has blood vessels
tight junction
73
stratified squamous epithelium
bottom layer held to basement membrane by hemidesmosomes
sales connected to each other by Desmosomes - For duct of sweat gland to go around cells to get to surface
74
areolar (loose) connective tissue
Ground substance, like jello
Collagen fibers provide strength
Stretchy
Find things together, dermis to epidermis
Find muscle to muscle, upper part of Dermis
75
irregular dense fibrous connective tissue
lower part of Dermis
A bunch of protein fibers packed tightly together randomly, mostly collagenous protein fibers
strong
Apply stress in all directions without tearing
76
smooth muscle
Proteins inside cell
held together by gap junctions
Bounded by cell membranes
Really coordinated actions with cell to cell communication
not voluntarily controlled
77
layers of the skin
1. epidermis
2. dermis
78
layers of epidermis
layers of epidermis
border not straight across
undulating border has more surface area= more diffusion
different colors: cells on bottom thriving and active, as get further from blood supply-not living= tan color
1. stratum basale (stem cells and melanocytes)
2. stratum spinosum (keratinocytes and dendritic cells)
3. stratum granulosum
4. stratum lucidum (present in cornified skin only)
5. stratum corneum
fat soluble skincare items get down to living layer while other kinds are too big of molecules.
79
stratum basale
(stem cells and melanocytes)
born
thrives
ages
gets pushed up
1 layer of cells
going through cell division
attached to basement membrane
80
stratum spinosum
(keratinocytes and dendritic cells)
still new
produce protein- keratin- make skin waterproof- keratinocytes
different shape
81
stratum granulosum
starting to die and shrink up
organelles start to fail
look like grains of sand
82
stratum lucidum
(present in cornified skin only)
sometime with thicker parts- transparent gap
ex) bottom of foot
83
stratum corneum
on surface
non living membrane bound keratin sac
sacs of keratin- give waterproof property
84
keratinization
keratinocytes- produce keratin
make skin waterproof
85
melanocytes, melanosomes, and skin color
1. eumelanin
2. pheomelanin
3. melanosome
4. melanocyte
lighter skin- more vitamin D- better reproduction and development of fetus
darker skin- closer to equator- more folic acid- without causes spina bifida- dark skin protects folic acid- otherwise sun destroys
86
eumelanin
true
brown
87
pheomelanin
reds
most people don’t have
88
melanosome
membrane bound sac of pigment
transferred to skin
89
melanocyte
cellular extensions- can use because held by desmosome not tight junction
color of skin changes due to activity of melanocytes-DNA determines
90
layers of dermis
collagen and elastin
1. dermal papillae
2. loose (areolar) connective tissue of papillary (upper) layer
3. irregular fibrous connective tissue of reticular (lower) layer
4. muscle (skeletal and smooth)
5. blood vessels
7. nerves (sensory and motor)
8. various accessory organs (details later)
note: the subcutaneous layer or hypodermis is not a layer of the skin. it is the tissues beneath the skin
91
dermal papillae
epidermal ridges and dermal papillae
fingerprints
lip prints
92
loose (areolar) connective tissue of papillary (upper) layer
collagen and elastin- some of both
space
elasticity
93
irregular fibrous connective tissue of reticular (lower) layer
Irregular dense fibers connective tissue-collagen-dense-fiber in every way-tough-withstand forces in every direction
94
muscle (skeletal and smooth)
Erector pilli muscle (smooth muscle)-attaches to hair follicles
95
hypodermis or subcutaneous layer
no definite border
gradual increase of adipose tissue
96
accessory organs of the skin
1. hair follciles
- anatomy
-follicle structure
- arrector pili muscle
2. physiology
2. glands
-sebaceous glands
-sweat (sudoriferous glands
hypodermis- adipose tissue- glands are deep in dermis up against hypodermis
97
sebaceous glands
Lots of cuboidal cells
Associated with hair follicles
Secret product to bathe hair follicles in oily product to make pliable and soft hair
Entire cell ruptures, cell membrane is broken, cells lost, have to replace faster than other styles (holocrine style)
98
sweat (sudoriferous) glands
1. eccrine or merocrine glands
2. apocrine glands
99
eccrine or merocrine glands
Exit surface of skin through pore
Temperature regulation
Will not lose any parts of the cell. We'll just lose secretory product
100
apocrine glands
exit surface of scan associated with the hair follicle
Active after achieving puberty
Make product that makes odors involved in sexual attraction
Lose part of the cell
101
glands are
epithelial tissue
have exposed surface (exocrine glands)
cuboidal, columnar, squamous
rapid continuous cell division
102
body temperature regulation
1. importance
2. heat production and loss
3. role of negative feedback
4. problems in temperature regulation
103
heat production and loss
1. warm to cool
2. physical methods
3. physiological methods
104
physiological methods of heat production and loss
-alteration of blood flow
-muscular activities
- sweat glands, hairs
105
physical methods of heat loss and production
- radiation
-conduction
-convection
-evaporation
106
radiation
gain heat through sun
107
conduction
physical contact
body temp to chair
108
convection
something in motion
ex) wind
warm air around body moved away by breeze and replaced by cool air
109
evaporation
sweating
water—>vapor
requires energy
energy lost as heat
sweat has to dry to evaporate and cool
110
alteration of blood flow
Blood vessels in Dermis
Diameter change
large=more volume==cooling- Less blood at core and more at surface- body radiates heat away from body-dissipates heat
Blood vessels narrow= Less volume at surface= Less body heat dissipated
111
muscular activities
Involuntary
Skeletal muscle is the main source of body heat
Maintain muscle mass to maintain body temperature
112
sweat glands, hairs
Sweat glands are active and secret when body temperature is higher
Sweat glands are inactive when body temp is lower because we don't want the sweat to dry due to it taking heat with it
Aging effects body temp by messing with sweat glands and skeletal muscle
small kids Have more surface area compared to volume so that also affects body temperature
113
problems in temperature regulation
1. hyperthermia
2. hypothermia
114
hypothermia
Body temperature decreases
80 degrees
Affects the cell membrane by causing it to be tight and having more rigidity which causes ionic movement to slow down and diffusion to slow down affecting heart rhythm causing heart arrhythmia
114
hyperthermia
Body temperature increases
106 degrees
Heat exhaustion is when you start to feel unwell and should stop activity
Heat stroke is when you stop sweating and can start shivering
When temperature is high it starts to violate the cell membrane and the cell fluidity. Small intestine will start to breakdown due to fluidity making and allowing bacteria to enter the bloodstream causing sepsis
115
follicle structure
tubular
modification of epidermal tissue
behave like epidermis-has cells like epidermis
bottom (base) layer of rapid cell division
next, layer that’s thriving- gains color
next, layer that’s nonliving-what we see
accumulate keratin-waterproof
116
arrector pili muscle
smooth muscle
attaches to base
contract- stand more upright
traps air at surface
