Exam 2 Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
bone classification by shape
A
- long bones
- short bones
- sesamoid (round) bones (sometimes considered a type of short bone)
- flat bones
- irregular bones
2
Q
long bones
A
femur, finger, toes
one axis is longer than other axis
3
Q
short bones
A
ankles, wrist
axes are all about the same length
4
Q
sesamoid (round) bones (sometimes considered a type of short bone)
A
completely embedded in connective tissue
patella
5
Q
flat bones
A
broad surface, relatively thin
cranium
6
Q
irregular bones
A
everything else
facial bones, vertebrae
7
Q
gross anatomy of long bones
A
only appendages
all bones with names are organs
bone is type of connective tissue
widely spread
intracellular matrix
collagen
- epiphyses (singular=epiphysis) and diaphysis
- articular (hyaline) cartilage
- medullary cavity
- compact (cortical) bone and cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone
- endosteum and periosteum
- red marrow and yellow marrow
8
Q
epiphyses (singular=epiphysis) and diaphysis
A
epiphyses:
distal and proximal
only long bones
diaphysis
goes between the epiphyses
9
Q
articular (hyaline) cartilage
A
all bones with synovial joints
form union with another bone
10
Q
medullary cavity
A
lined with endosteum
only long bones
11
Q
compact (cortical) bone and cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone
A
compact-surface
spongy- inside
spongy- mass without the weight, porous, blood vessels wind way through open spaces
tissue
all bones have
12
Q
endosteum and periosteum
A
inside bone
inside medullary cavity
only long bones have endosteum
all bones have periosteum
goes around the bone
dense fibrous connective tissue
collagen protein- primary
13
Q
red marrow and yellow marrow
A
red marrow
all bones
found in spongy
makes all blood cells
yellow marrow
only long bones
in medullary cavity
fatty substance, store calories
14
Q
microscopic structure of bone
A
- compact (cortical) bone
- cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone
15
Q
compact (cortical) bone
A
- osteons present
- osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
- matrix of collagen and inorganic salts
- central canal, lamellae, osteons
- perforating canals
16
Q
osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculili
A
osteocytes look like spiders
17
Q
central canals, lamellae, osteons
A
all rings make osteons
osteons with central canal in middle
contain blood vessels
rings of tissue around central canal called lamellae
blood vessels only in central canal
rely on diffusion to get nutrients
osteons about same size due to limit of diffusion
18
Q
perforating canals
A
90 degree angles to central canal
how blood gets from blood vessels in medullary cavity out to central canals
19
Q
cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone
A
1.all bone tissue have canaliculi and lacunae but compact arranged around central canal
2. osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
3. matrix of collagen and inorganic salts
4. trabeculae, lamellae
20
Q
osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
A
lacunae- white space around cells
canaliculi- space around extensions where bone cells meet (gap junctions)
exchange nutrients well
21
Q
trabeculae, lamellae
A
trabeculae- bony plate
lamellae- arranged in circular rings- no central canal. blood supply isn’t in center- all around due to gap junctions
cells are connected by gap junctions
22
Q
things unique to long bone
A
epiphyses
diaphysis
medullary cavity
endosteum
yellow marrow
23
Q
things all bones have
A
articular (hyaline) cartilage
compact bone
spongy bone
periosteum
red marrow
24
Q
cancellous (spongy, Trabecular) bone
A
trabeculae present
all bond tissues have canaliculi and lacunae but compact arranged around central canal
- osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
- Matrix of collagen and inorganic salts
- trabeculae, lamellae
25
osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
lacunae- White space around cells
canaliculi- space around extensions where bone cells meet (gap junctions) - exchange nutrients well
26
trabeculae, lamellae
bony plate
arranged in circular rings- no central canal
blood supply isnt in center- all around due to gap junctions
27
hyaline cartilage
1. chondroblasts, chondrocytes, and lacunae
2. Very fine collagen fibers in matrix
3. ground substance = protein polysaccharide plus water
28
chondroblasts, chondrocytes, and lacunae
many bones start out as hyaline cartilage- long bones
lacunae- chamber cell is in
chondro- cartilage
extracellular matrix- firm jello like substance w/ collagen fibers- ex) nose
not good Blood supply so it doesn't heal well
29
bone development
1. intramembranous ossification
2. endochondral ossification
30
Intramembranous ossification
1. Baby cranium, starts in membrane as soft spots
2. Layers of primitive mesenchyme
3. mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts
4. Dense vascular supply
5. Osteocytes soon isolated in Lacunae
6. . periosteaum Forms from mesenchyme
7. Compact bone deposited over spongy bone
31
Layers of primitive mesenchyme
Collagen connective tissue-is not in adults
Hasnt specialized
Progenitor cell is not specialized
Will become connective tissue cell
gene expression activates progenitor cell
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mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts
bone forming cell
33
Osteocytes soon isolated in Lacunae
become osteocyte when form lacunae around
transport nutrients and waste products
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periosteaum Forms from mesenchyme
progenitor cell specializes to become fibroblast
35
Compact bone deposited over spongy bone
fibroblasts form from progenitor cell on the outside or surface of periosteum
form spongy bone thin surface gaps filled with compact bone
spongy bone forms first due to less stuff having to be made- less mass
spongy bone is more prevalent
36
endochondral ossification
1. hyaline cartilage model
2. matrix degenerates, periosteum forms
3. matrix degenerates, periosteum forms
4. Spongy bone forms
5. Osteopaths isolated in lacunae
6. Compact bone deposited over spongy bone
7. ossification centers
37
hyaline cartilage model
Collagen connective tissue-is not in adults
Hasnt specialized
Progenitor cell is not specialized
Will become connective tissue cell
38
matrix degenerates, periosteum forms
Cartilage dying from calcification
Has mold to fill
. periosteum develops
accumulates calcium- cartilage is dying
39
Blood vessels invade; osteoblasts differentiate under periosteum
Move into tissue with osteoblasts and develop with periosteum
Primary ossification center fill with bone
Remove volume in the form of cartilage
Blood invades epiphysis
epiphysis starts to ossify- secondary ossification center
40
ossification centers
trapped leftover cartilaginous model- epiphyseal plate where bone grows-articular cartilage is also left over
41
similarities between intramembranous and endochondral ossification
both are development
both starting material is different than end material
42
differences between intramembranous and endochondral ossification
intra:
mensenchyme- we dont have anymore
progenitor cells- specializes
good blood supply-always there
endo:
hyaline cartilage- still have
calcium cells- have to die
bad blood supply- invade later
43
growth of epiphyseal plate
1. layers of cartilaginous cells
2. phagocytic osteoclasts
3. invasion of osteoblasts
4. bone increases in length and thickness
5. formation of medullary cavity
44
layers of cartilaginous cells
1. resting cells
2. mitotic cells
3. enlarging, calcified cells
4. dead cells, calcified matrix
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resting cells
zone of resting cartilage
cartilage isn’t actively dividing
anchoring to epiphysis
46
mitotic cells
zone of proliferating cartilage
rapid cell division of chondrocytes
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enlarging calcified cells
zone of hypertrophic cartilage
excessive growth
makes plate thicker
48
dead cells, calcified matrix
zone of calcified cartilage
cartilage dies and is removed and replaced by bone tissue
osteoblasts come from medullary cavity to replace cartilage with bone tissue
49
phagocytic osteoclasts
hollow out medullary cavity
50
invasion of osteoblasts
fills the spot of cleared out dead cartilage with bone tissue
51
bone increases in length and thickness
cartilage lengthens and thickens
bone tissue then fills
52
formation of medullary cavity
osteoclasts hollow out medullary cavity
was a macrophage
degrade bone tissue
53
bone homeostasis
1. nutritional status (especially vitamins)
2. regulation of blood calcium
3. parathyroid hormone and osteoclasts
54
nutritional status (especially vitamins)
vitamins A, C, D
chemicals that enzymes need to do their job
cant do job without
A: osteoblasts, osteoclasts, chemical reactions
C: synthesize collagen
D: help absorb calcium
55
regulation of blood calcium
nerves and muscles do job
calcitonin of blood calcium
lowers
too high of blood calcium
thyroid- receptor
release calcitonin- control center
stimulate osteoblasts- effector (take calcium)
56
parathyroid hormone and osteoclasts
raises
too low of blood calcium
parathyroid gland- receptor
release parathyroid hormone- control center
stimulate osteoclasts- effector (releases calcium)
57
Classification of joints by degree of movement
1. synarthrotic
2. amphiarthrotic
3. diarthrotic
58
Synarthrotic
No movement
Everything in the face except the jaw
59
Amphiarthrotic
Little movement
Limited motion
Pubic symphysis, vertebral disks
60
diarthrotic
Freely moving
elbow, wrist, finger, shoulder
61
Classification of joints by anatomy
1. fibrous joints
Fibrous connective tissue, dens connective tissue, collagen- synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic
2. cartilaginous joints
Cartilage- synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic
3. synovial joints
62
Fibrous joints
1. syndesmosis
2. suture
gomphosis
63
syndesmosis
Amphiarthrotic
interosseous ligament (between bone)
dense connective tissue and collage
64
suture
Joint in the skull except the jaw
Connected by collagen
synarthrotic
65
gomphosis
Holding tooth and socket
Dense connective tissue and collagen
periodontal ligament (around tooth)
synarthrotic
66
Cartilaginous joints
1. synchondrosis
2.symphysis with fibrocartilage
67
synchondrosis
First rib to sternum
synarthrotic
hyaline cartilage
68
symphysis with fibrocartilage
Pubic synthesis, vertebral disks, meniscus in the knee
amphiarthrotic
Fibrocartilage (takes more stress) (ground substance has more collagen) (absorb shock)
69
synovial joints
1. articular (hyaline) cartilage
2. Joint capsule enclosing cavity
3. Joint cavity containing synovial fluid
70
Joint capsule enclosing cavity
Keeps fluid from escaping
Dense fibrous connective tissue
Lined with synovial membrane
71
Joint cavity containing synovial fluid
Fluid filled space
Gives wider range of motion
72
special features of some (larger) synovial joints
1. Fibrocartilage (articular) disks (ex=menisci of knee)
2. bursae (singular=bursa)
73
Fibrocartilage (articular) disks (ex=menisci of knee)
pad of fibrocartilage
Additional shock absorption
knee, jaw
74
bursae (singular=bursa)
Sack that is fluid filled
Under Tendon
Helps cushion
Knee, shoulder, hip, elbow
75
Types of joint movement
1. Flexion, extension
2. adduction, Abduction
3.Circumduction
4. Rotation
5. supination, pronation
6. eversion, inversion; dorsiflexion, plantar flexion
7. Protraction, retraction
8. Elevation, depression
76
Flexion, extension
Bend, straighten
Joint angle smaller, joint angle larger
Hyperextension: going beyond normal anatomical position
77
adduction, Abduction
Goes back to line, takes away from line
78
Circumduction
Has a fixed point
distal end goes in circle
79
Rotation
Central Axis
like a wheel
80
supination, pronation
Type of rotation
Palm up, palm down
81
eversion, inversion; dorsiflexion, plantar flexion
Turn soles laterally, turn soles immediately
point toes toward back, point toes toward bottom of feet (for the foot
82
Protraction, retraction
move forward, move back
ex) pigeon heads
83
Elevation, depression
raising body part, lower/bring body part back down
shrug shoulders
84
types of synovial joints
1. Ball and socket (multiaxial or triaxial)
2. codylar (ellipsoid) joint (biaxial)
3. plane (gliding) joint (multiaxial) (or nonaxial)
4. hinge joint (uniaxial)
5. pivot joint (uniaxial)
6. saddle joint (biaxial)
85
Ball and socket (multiaxial or triaxial)
hip and shoulder
cup shaped depression
round structure that tucks into depression
86
codylar (ellipsoid) joint (biaxial)
rounded structure is more elliptical than round
cant rotate
fingers that connect to hand
87
plane (gliding) joint (multiaxial) (or nonaxial)
between short bones
bones of hand or feet
cant go far but can move (slide)
some say that the singular joint cant move
most common joint in body
vertebrae above and below and with rib
88
hinge joint (uniaxial)
only flew and extend
elbow
toes and fingers
89
pivot joint (uniaxial)
rotate
lower arm
cervical vertebrae
90
saddle joint (biaxial)
some don’t recognize, some identify a lot
at bone of thumb
flex and extend
abduct and adduct
91
Active transport
Requires ATP
Against concentration gradient
Puts where it already has a lot of substance
Carrier protein required
ATP hydrolyzed releasing energy
Split water
Take off one phosphate to make ADP
Breaking ATP apart means allowing to move against gradient
92
Sodium potassium pump
Facilitated diffusion
Polar
Polar
acts to maintain gradient
higher [Na+] outside cell
higher [K+] inside cell
Ratio Na+ to K+ transported is three to two
Every time three Na+ moves out of cell
everytime move 2 K+ into cell
Significant energy expenditure by cell (around fifty percent)
Moving ions around
pump: Moves against gradient, changes shape, when open to inside cell Na+ binds and K+ leaves, When open to outside cell Na+ leave and K+ attach
93
leak channels
Don't have a gate
Sodium potassium leeks with concentration gradient
always open
94
Gated channels
Requires ATP
Particular conditions when open
Mostly closed
outweigh leak channels
95
the membrane potential
potential: create situation for whats necessary in future. difference of concentration of ions inside and out. energy to do work
resting: Not contracting/ sending impulse
1. cell membrane compartmentalizes ions
2. concentration gradients established
3. ions passively move through selective, gated channels
4. relative concentrations constant
5. difference in charge between two areas creates potential energy
96
cell membrane compartmentalizes ions
make barriers
cant go in or out without channel
97
relative concentrations constant
[Na+] always higher outside cell
[K+] always higher inside cell
quantity of ions moving a tiny fraction of total ions present
if 15 seconds to leave classroom those closer to door/back of room will be able to leave, rest of people wont
98
difference in charge between two areas creates potential energy
1. measure of cell’s ability to do work-energy
2. resting membrane potential for neurons typically -70 mV
3. ions moving, steady state, net flux=0
4. Na+ and K+ leak channels (K+ permeability higher)
99
measure of cell’s ability to do work-energy
charge difference creates potential energy
membranes separates charges
100
resting membrane potential for neurons typically -70 mV
typical for neurons
KNOW THIS NUMBER: 70 charges less
when send impulse- becomes positive for a second
less positive inside than outside
always compared inside to outside
Relative:reference point. ions inside cell don’t move- are negative
101
ions moving, steady state, net flux=0
at rest, ions moving across membrane. movement in=movement out
102
Na+ and K+ leak channels (K+ permeability higher)
K+ permeability > Na+ permeability
all ions are + charges
103
why 3Na when K leak is so much better?
inside of cell relatively negative, attracts positive ions like Na+
symport carrier proteins Transports in glucose and sodium tags along
Na changes places in cell with H out of cell. may be necessary to control pH
104
neuron anatomy
controls skeletal muscles- in spinal cord
1. cell body
2. dendrites with ligan-gated and voltage-gated ion channels
3. axon arises from axon hillock (also called trigger zone), many voltage-gated Na+ channels
4. myelination
5. form connections (synapses) with target cells
105
cell body
most cell of nucleus
106
dendrites with ligan-gated and voltage-gated ion channels
extensions
info enters/picked up
smaller/numerous
receive info
107
axon arises from axon hillock (also called trigger zone), many voltage-gated Na+ channels
axon
only 1
carries impulse to next cell
goes to muscle it controls from spinal cord
trigger zone
has to achieve threshold
when threshold is reached, behavior change
a point at which change behavior
gated channels
allows for ions to diffuse
change ion distribution
can close
voltage
change in charge
for neuron cells: -70 will open, at -55 is the threshold. -60 closed, -65 closed, -55 open
ligand
chemical
when chemical attaches to gate it opens
108
myelination
schwann cells
independent cells
layered around axon-myelin
of membrane
phospholipids
polar ions cant leak out
insulates
allows impulses to travel faster
109
environment of neuron
outside/around: higher Na+; inside high in K+
110
synaptic potentials
1. Communication between axon (sends message) and dendrite (receives message)
2. graded potentials versus action potentials
3. depolarization
4. repolarization
5. hyperpolarization
6. excitatory post synaptic potential
7. inhibitory post synaptic potential
8. response can be very localized
9. response can be additive
10. cell body integrates all postsynaptic potentials
111
Communication between axon (sends message) and dendrite (receives message)
Neuro transmitter opens the gates (voltage) for Na+
presynaptic- chemically gated
post-voltage gated
axon terminal-where axon ends
synaptic knob- very end of axon, carry info to cell body
presynaptic to postsynaptic neuron- cells never touch (synaptic cleft)
112
graded potentials versus action potentials
stimulus small=response small
vice versa
on postsynaptic cell
113
depolarization
lessen
lessen change difference
EPSP
114
repolarization
go back to starting point
115
hyperpolarization
excessive
making change difference even greater/ more pronounced
IPSP
116
excitatory post synaptic potential
EPSP
depolarization
toward threshold
more likely to send impulse/contract
117
inhibitory post synaptic potential
IPSP
hyperpolarization
less likely to send impulse/contract
away from threshold
if inhibitory doest work causes tremor disorders
118
response can be very localized
ions dont travel very far from entry point
get trigger zone to threshold
119
response can be additive
lots of sgnals-both inhibitory and excitatory signals add up
temporal summation
stimulus close to second
run together
rapid succession
adding together
bigger change
spatial summation
stimulations at multiple places on cell at same time
if didn’t have multiple wouldn’t reach threshold
if didn’t have multiple wouldn’t reach threshold
120
cell body integrates all postsynaptic potentials
subthreshold
suprathreshold and all the subthreshold
graded
below threshold
suprathreshold and all the all or none principle
all or none
action potential
above threshold
121
