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exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

muscular responses

A

twitch

summation

incomplete and complete tetanus

recruitment of motor units

length tension relationship

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2
Q

twitch

A

muscle completely relaxed before next stimulation

not very helpful- need sustained contraction or several small contractions

motor neuron action potential

muscle fiber action potential

latent period

delayed muscle contraction

due to contraction process (last exam) (takes time)

muscle contraction. relaxation

1 muscle contraction (impulse) followed by relaxation

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3
Q

summation

A

muscle couldn’t fully relax before next stimulus

additive

some relaxation

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4
Q

incomplete and complete tetanus

A

stimulations closer and closer together

soon relaxation not possible

sustained contraction

incomplete tetanus

still some relaxation

complete tetanus

no opportunity for relaxation

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5
Q

recruitment of motor units

A

motor unit- nerve and all muscle fibers it controls

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6
Q

length tension relationship

A

optimal range pre contraction overlap actin and myosin

myosin heads have something to grab onto-have job- sliding- causes momentum and force

little bit of bend helps- like lifting weights

outside optimal range = significant loss in maximum tension

too short- no sliding- no momentum

too long- myosin heads have nothing to grab onto

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7
Q

how does length tension relationship affect heart health

A

hearts have sarcomeres

congestive heart failure: weak contractions- overly stretched

more volume brought in over stretches and contracts w/ less strength

can’t release volume let in

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8
Q

Muscle energetics

A

Stored ATP

Creatine Phosphate

Intensity and duration of activity

anaerobic and aerobic pathways

lactic acid threshold and oxygen debt

fatigue

recovery

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9
Q

Muscle energetics stored ATP

A

first 5 seconds used

body cant store much ATP

usually used right away

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10
Q

creatine phosphate

A

CP

AT rest can be combined with ADP

breaks down and manufactures ATP in 1 step (1 ATP)

can be reversible

ATP + C ←→ ADP + CP

a cell can only contain so much CP

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11
Q

intensity and duration of activity

A

short duration, high intensity

long duration, low intensity

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12
Q

anaerobic pathways

A

without oxygen- doesnt participate in reactions

there but not participating

cells cant store glucose but can store glycogen- has to be broken into glucose

cytosol- fluid portion of cell- glycolysis occurs

net gain of 2 ATP

produce pyruvic acid using glycolysis (a series of reactions) in cytosol

if oxygen is still not being utilized, pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid

uses carbohydrates as energy source

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13
Q

aerobic pathways

A

pyruvic acid and forward uses oxygen

if oxygen is available pyruvic acid moves into mitochondria

if oxygen is not available pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid

fatty acids and amino acids can be used as an energy source, only in the presence of oxygen

can still use carbohydrates

makes around low 30 something ATP

fatty acids would produce more ATP per molecule

amino acids- want to use to make proteins, not use as energy

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14
Q

fatigue

A

short duration exercise = depletion of ATP and CP stores plus lactic acid production- high intensity

run out of CP- has to rest to make more

anaerobic- lactic acid build up- interferes with enzymes (pH changes makes enzymes unhappy)

lactic acid doesn’t stay put- blood circulation carries it away- does NOT make you sore

goes to liver to be converted into glucose- uses ATP- no net gain (wash)

long duration exercise = depletion of glycolysis stores- low intensity

“hitting the wall”- depletion of glycogen

why people have to eat during a marathon (carbohydrates)

to recover- rest and eat

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15
Q

recovery

A

removal of lactic acid

lactic acid doesn’t stay put- blood circulation carries it away- does NOT make you sore- short duration

goes to liver to be converted into glucose- uses ATP- no net gain (wash)- short duration

to recover- rest and eat- long duration

delayed onset muscle soreness

confined to eccentric muscles

very small tears in muscles, connective tissue, and/or tendons

micro tears

controlled muscle contractions and lengthening, myosin head being torn from actin

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16
Q

types of contraction

A

isotonic

isometric

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17
Q

isotonic contraction

A

same tension or force

length changes

concentric

muscle shortens

eccentric

muscle lengthens

myosin heads are breaking off actin

micro tears- greater gains and strength than concnetric

larger thicker stronger structure- maybe more myobrils in that area

doing eccentric movements with controlled slow lowering will maintain strength with less time and less reps

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18
Q

isometric contraction

A

same measure

no movement at joint

muscle maintains same length but will develop tension

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19
Q

muscle fiber types

A

different kinds of cells (fibers)- like red and white meat

slow twitch (red; type I)

fast twitch glycolytic (white; type IIb)

fast twitch intermediate (white; type IIa)

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20
Q

slow twitch (red; type I) muscle fiber

A

ATPase enzyme version that energizes myosin slowly= contract slowly

more abundant blood supply

manufactures myoglobin- has a lot- related to myoglobin

best endurance

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21
Q

fast twitch glycolytic (white; type IIb) muscle fiber

A

no/ few myoglobin

get majority of ATP through glycolysis

less mitochondria

worst endurance, most powerful

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22
Q

fast twitch intermediate (white; type IIa) muscle fiber

A

have a fair amount of myoglobin

in the middle

have mitochondria

decent blood supply

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23
Q

slow vs fast twitch

A

how fast contract

depend on ATPase enzyme

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24
Q

red vs white

A

blood supply

more= red

blood delivers oxygen to make ATP (aerobic respiration)

white= less blood supply

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25
myoglobin
smaller oxygen bind to (give red color)
26
hemoglobin
larger giver red color
27
rhabdomyolysis
skeletal muscles rupture and contents spill out in blood stream one of the contents (myoglobin) kidneys- filter through size myoglobin can start filtering but cant finish- plug up filtration go into kidney failure
28
lever systems
defined by order of components (look at middle) fulcrum- joint flat part- bone force- muscle attaches to bone first class (resistance-fulcrum-force) second class (fulcrum-resistance-force) third class (resistant-force-fulcrum)
29
first class (resistance-fulcrum-force)
scissors fulcrum in middle triceps brachii
30
second class (fulcrum-resistance-force)
wheelbarrow resistance in middle standing on tip toes
31
third class (resistant-force-fulcrum)
force in center tweezers biceps brachii
32
Smooth Muscle
anatomy actin and myosin excitation-contraction coupling relaxation
33
smooth muscle anatomy
no striations, single nucleus, spindle shaped smaller single nuclei narrow on ends widens at middle (spindle) connected by gap junctions-electrical synapse rudimentary sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium coming from outside cell (5x more outside) no calcium storage no t-tubules no impulse deep in cell most are single unit (visceral) n epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, or endomysium smooth muscle has gap junction cant have flow and cell to cell communication if covered by endomysium no sarcomeres no pattern to actin and myosin overlap no striations
34
smooth muscle actin and myosin
Greater ratio of myosin to actin than in skeletal muscle And more crossbridge units per actin than skeletal muscle more myosin attached to actin doesn’t have to be from same cell
35
smooth muscle excitation-contraction coupling
calcium (from intracellular and extracellular sources) enters sarcoplasm no troponin or troposyosin binding spots are always open calcium binds to calmodulin regulator protein binding to calmodulin activates enxyme kinase presence of calcium activates (phosphorylates) myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) Activated MLCK causes cross-bridge formation activates and energizes myosin contraction not dependent on calcium but on myosin phosphorylation control when myosin is activated, doesn’t control binding sites calcium is still the trigger- just trigger different things skeletal: myosin energized all time, binding sites controlled smooth: binding sites always available, control activation of myosin
36
smooth muscle relaxation
calcium removed inactivation (dephosphorylation) of MLCK
37
comparing smooth and skeletal muscles
more cross-bridges per actin in smooth muscle smooth muscle regulation at level of myosin, not troponin and actin tone held longer in smooth muscles with less energy requirement smooth muscle contraction often phasic or rhythmic (ex) peristalsis) smooth muscles can be stretched more without loss of tension (plasticity) smooth muscle contractions slower not all smooth muscles require neural stimulation
38
ore cross-bridges per actin in smooth muscle
smooth muscle: more myosin
39
tone held longer in smooth muscles with less energy requirement
consumes less energy- lose less ATP as heat contract for longer more efficient
40
smooth muscle contraction often phasic or rhythmic (ex) peristalsis)
patterns of contraction (peristalsis)- stimulates neighboring cells cell to cell electrical synapses small intestine- 18-20 ft long- move contents along in segments, 1 segment contracts and push contents forward to next segment and starts over- like tube of toothpaste ex) intestines, urine from kidneys to bladder visceral smooth muscle carries out peristalsis multi unit smooth muscle- works like skeletal muscle motor unit iris of eye: pigmented smooth muscle- 2 sets, stimulated by nerve- make pupil dilate and contract
41
smooth muscles can be stretched more without loss of tension (plasticity)
more myosin from other smooth muscle can attach different myosin filament
42
smooth muscle contractions slower
held longer when relaxed: spindle shaped when contracted- more globular (fatter) and shorter actin and myosin closer to surface
43
not all smooth muscles require neural stimulation
hormones- many respond uterus stretch reflex stomach overfills and stretches stomach reflexively right hand side of graph: move intersecting point to the right- 2x as far away can stretch a tremendous amount before losing tone and strength more myosin
44
Why does glucose uptake by a skeletal muscle cell require transporter such as GLUT4? In other words, why isn't simple diffusion possible
Glucose is large and polar
45
What stimulates the insertion of GLUT4 into the sarcolemma?
insulin dependent; exercise dependent (Skeletal muscle contraction)
46
The existence of GLUT4 in the sarcolemma does not guarantee glucose uptake into the cell. Why? what else is required?
concentration gradient
47
Exercise helps reduce blood glucose levels in people, even if their insulin resistant unless their cells can no longer respond to insulin efficiently. how is this possible
exercise specific
48
exercise at a submaximal level flow chart
glucose released from liver blood glucose levels decrease insertion of GLUTs into sarcolemma diffusion of glucose into cells Skeletal muscles also use glycogen but they use it right away so it doesn't get released into the bloodstream
49
LDH
Converts pyruvate into lactate reversible
50
H+
Minimizes changes of ph
51
lactate
produced all the time
52
lactic acid
Produced during anaerobic respiration
53
in an actively contracting skeletal muscle cell what would cause a decrease in the rate of glucose diffusion into this cell
if GLUT4 is saturated; # of transporters- Can only transport one glucose at a time- if GLUT4 is saturated wont work change in concentration gradient
54
In order to produce lactate from pyruvate what items or inputs are required
LDH, H+, NADH
55
During glycolysis 1 molecule of glucose which has six carbons is split into two molecules of pyruvate which has three carbons each. Each pyruvate molecule can then be converted into a molecule of lactate which also has three carbons. Oxygen is not required for any of these processes to occur why
no carbon dioxide is produced no change (decrease) in total number of carbons
56
After a lactate is produced in the sarcoplasm where might it go and how might it be used
into mitochondria; exits cell mitochondria Can convert lactate into pyruvate when exiting the cell it is cotransported with H+ ions- the H+ ions become the issue
57
How does the production of lactate protect or buffer the cell from acidosis which is defined as the accumulation of H + in a fluid filled compartment
picks up 2H+
58
Look at the structure of lactate. Do you think it can leave the cells via simple diffusion? Why or why not
polar; relatively large
59
the 3 fates of lactate
exit cell via MCT mitochondria converted to pyruvate
60
If lactate is an energy source for the cell in which it is produced, why does it spill into the blood in other words why to blood lactate levels increase during exercise especially in untrained people
production>utilization Lactate is not the problem H+ Co transported is
61
LDH is an enzyme and thus a protein. in order for a skeletal muscle cell to increase the amount of LDH within the sarcoplasm, what cellular processes must be completed? what organelles need to be added to figure in order for LDH to be produced?
increased protein synthesis= more copies of enzyme LDH
62
Through dedicated training, the speeder level of effort coinciding with a persons lactate threshold improves. Within the skeletal muscle cell what changes might have occurred to permit this improved lactate threshold resulting in less lactate spilling owl into the blood
more LDH enzyme (synthesis) more mitochondria
63
Changes in the extracellular fluid and blood flow chart
Items diffusing from the muscle cell are lactate and H+ lactate is used by other organs like the heart H+ cotransports and causes problems Transporter used during diffusion is MCT Location of transporter in the muscle cell is in the sarcolemma Impact on ECF and blood pH: decrease- H+ added (lactic acid)
64
Lactate
produced from pyruvate
65
H+ proton
produced from ATP hydrolysis
66
Suppose you are measuring changes in blood composition in real time in an untrained person like Shelby who is jogging a moderate pace on a treadmill and you noticed that as lactate levels increase in her blood so do H+ levels why is this is lactate the original source of these additional H+ ions
Lactate co transports with H+
67
Hypothesize how Shelby's lactate threshold rest would change with dedicated aerobic training. What changes would occur within skeletal muscle cells to delay the spilling of lactate into the blood
more LDH (enzyme) and more mitochondria= raise lactate threshold
68
lactic acid
produced during anaerobic respiration proton donor- produces protons decreases pH in sarcoplasm
69
lactate
produced during aerobic respiration proton acceptor (remove protons from fluid keep pH in sarcoplasm neutral (buffer)
70
Skim back through this case study and identify the causes of H+ production and accumulation in the sarcoplasm, extracellular fluid, and blood. Is lactate ever the original source of these ions were just guilty by association? Then go back to the very first page of this case study and re examine your thoughts from activity one can you generate a more detailed list of misconceptions now
H+ originate from ATP hydrolysis and NADH lactate is not the cause- guilty by association
71
What is the relationship between the production of lactate and the burning sensation many people like Shelby described after they begin a new exercise regimen or activity how is the brain made aware of this situation
H+ stimulate pain receptors
72
Hypothesize what changes could occur within skeletal muscle cells that would help prevent the burning sensation after completing an aerobic exercise activity like jogging
increased LDH (enzyme) and increased mitochondria
73
nervous system basics
divisions classifications of neurons neuroglial cells axon regeneration impulse processing
74
divisions of nervous system
central nervous system peripheral nervous system sensory division motor division
75
sensory division of pns
sensory receptors sensory nerves
76
sensory receptors
all over skin pick up touch, ect carried by sensory nerves
77
sensory nerves
can only carry toward CNS cant go back to nerve
78
motor division of PNS
somatic skeletal muscle conscious control autonomic smooth and cardiac muscle glands no conscious control
79
classifications of neurons
anatomical unipolar bipolar multipolar physiological sensory interneurons motor
80
unipolar neurons
1 process that exists splits 1 region that acts as dendrite- labelled at very end because the rest is myelinated 1 region acts as axon sensory division- most common in sensory
81
bipolar neurons
1 dendrite 1 axon sensory division
82
multipolar neuron
at least 2 dendrites 1 axon motor and interneurons
83
interneurons
transferring from 1 sensory neuron to motor neuron connecting neuron only CNS
84
motor
away from CNS and toward effectors
85
neuroglial cells
CNS- support neuron- don’t send impulse astrocytes ependyma microglia oligodendrocytes PNS Schwann cells
86
astrocytes
“star” have extensions sit on top of capillary deliver nutrients to neuron from capillary deliver waste to capillary from neuron provide protection: apart of the brain barrier level of selectivity of what gets to neuron picky about size and polarity loves nonpolar hates polar
87
ependyma
fluid filled cavity fluid: cerebral spinal fluid create cavity that holds fluid creates barrier to prevent getting to neuron selective about polar substances
88
microglia
carry out phagocytosis clean up debris, cell fragments, infectious agents
89
oligodendrocytes
insulates allows impulse to go faster
90
Schwann cells
myelinate ad increase speed help regenerate damaged axon
91
axon regeneration
cell body in tact axon distal to injury dies schwann cells stay own cell and entity axon can follow pathway and grow in tube cant grow anywhere on muscle fiber- has to connect with motor end plate axons don’t grow very fast 1mm a day
92
impulse processing
facilitation convergence divergence
93
facilitation
raise something toward threshold without reaching threshold “assist or help”
94
convergence
“come together” multiple presynaptic neurons terminate on same postsynaptic cell raise toward threshold
95
divergence
motor unit is an example 1 presynaptic cell, multiple postsynaptic cell
96
CNS- Bones of cranium and spinal vertebrae
hard and good protection no give if there is inflammation swelling goes into CNS structures instead
97
CNS meninges
layers partitions subarachnoid space epidural space
98
Layers of CNS meninges
form a layer around brain- fold in and make partitions dura mater outermost layer durable toughest lots of collagen arachnoid mater look sweb like CSF between arachnoid mater and pia mater pia mater on surface of CNS follows nooks and crannies arachnoid granulations where cerebral spinal fluid exits into venus blood
99
partitions of CNS meninges
make control of cross communication separate left and right halves of brain surface of brain unmyelinated vs. center of spinal cord unmyelinated fissure: deep crevice Falx cerebri separate left and right halves of cerebrum longitudinal fissure Falx cerebelli separate left and right halves of cerebellum Tentorium cerebelli separate cerebellum from cerebrum transverse fissure
100
subarachnoid space
csf circulates provide nutrition and cushioning
101
epidural space
between dura mater and spinal cord
102
ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid
functions of CSF composition of CSF production by choroid plexuses in ventricles ventricles: all CSF circulates here choroid plexus makes CSF ependymal cells circulation
103
functions of CSF
provide nutrition and cushioning
104
composition of CSF
proteins are different size: proteins filtered out from plasma to CSF osmolarity the same no net gains or losses by osmosis good bc no room for gains of csf
105
production by choroid plexuses in ventricles
ventricles: all CSF circulates here choroid plexus makes CSF
106
circulation
constant exit through arachnoid granulations what draws CSF in forward direction
107
blood brain barrier
astrocytes contains pericytes pericytes (a type of smooth muscle cell of the microcirculation) capillary endothelium with tight junctions simple squamous epithelium to leave: have to leave plasma, then get across capillary, then through pericyte and out of astrocyte how blood CSF different: not nearly as restrictive, no go between
108
blood CSF barrier
choroid epithelial cells basal membrane endothelium of pia mater capillaries
109
comparison of BBB and BCSF
BBB selective at endothelium tight juctions there have to have carriers and be fat soluble move from blood out BCSF not held by tight junctions proteins wont filter selective at choroid plexus ependymal cells can go both directions still need a carrier protein and be fat soluble
110
cerebrum
gyri, sulci, and fissures lobes hemispheric dominance (lateralization) and corpus collosum memory
111
gyri
rased area of the cerebrum also called convolutions
112
sulci
depression of cerebrum
113
fissure
a fissure is different than a sulci because fissure are more prominent and deeper.
114
lobes of cerebrum
frontal lobe parietal lobe temporal lobe occipital lobe
115
frontal lobe of cerebrum
primary motor cortex red/ pink in picture all skeletal muscles controls muscles on opposite side of body in front of central sulcus broca’s area just for speech frontal eye field coordination level of control move eyes up and down together can also move 1 eye laterally and the other medially as if looking at finger
116
cortex
near surface
117
association area
higher processing concentration math plan for future actions have consequences take a long time to mature
118
cerebral cortex
grey matter on surface unmyelinated more cross talk
119
smooth brain syndrome
a condition characterized by a lack of gyri and sulci in the brain, leading to developmental issues and cognitive impairments. (less wrinkles)
120
parietal lobe of cerebrum
primary somatosensory cortex yellow strip in picture sensory area involved with cutaneous senses skins senses touch taste temperature pain some internal organs that are near surface somatosensory association cortex word choice understanding words and speech pauses emphasis tone gustatory cortex eating and taste taste food
121
temporal lobe of cerebrum
primary auditory cortex hearing raw sounds the more specialized areas what sounds mean recognizing patterns Wernicke’s areas between temporal and parietal lobe (in middle) put all the senses together how to watch movie
122
occipital lobe of cerebrum
primary visual cortex vision seeing objects visual association area recognize individuals see background way hold themselves- when cant see face
123
hemispheric dominance (lateralization) and corpus collosum
hemispheric dominance (lateralization) generally, people concentrate on information most people are left-brain dominant- 90% of the population left hemisphere: language, analytical right hemisphere: orientation of motor tasks, recognition of patterns, emotional thought processes, personality corpus callosum allow left and right cerebrum to communicate with each other very controlled
124
motor cortex
mostly made to control facial muscles and hands better 50% skeletal muscle facial expression chewing speaking eatng
125
sensory cortex
primarily controls skin and nerves for speech and hands speech chewing swallowing big areas of feedback
126
Phineas gage
right hemisphere dominant was not affected could still talk, problem solve, communicate, could do everything left hemisphere non dominant affected change personality

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