A&P Exam 2 (refined)

Question 1

Where are the highest proportion of elastic fibers in the tunica media located? Which artery class uses vasoconstriction/vasodilation? What feeds into the capillaries? What are the smallest arteries? What is a precapillary sphincter and where can it be found?

Answer 1

• Elastic arteries
• Muscular arteries
• Arterioles
• Meta-arterioles
• Precapillary sphincter is a smooth muscle ring at the true capillary origin.
• Can be located in meta-arterioles
• Relaxation permits blood to flow into true capillaries; contraction causes blood to bypass capillary

Question 2

What is anastomoses? Which vessels are the smallest? What do they connect? True or false: They are found near almost every cell in the body? What are capillary beds? What is autoregulation?

Answer 2

• Vessels that provide alternative routes for blood to reach areas in need.
• Capillaries
• True
• Vessels branching from metaarteriole. Consists of 10-100 capillaries arise from a single metaarteriole.
• Local adjustment of blood flow to meet metabolic needs. Controlled by vasocontrictor and vasodilator chemicals.

Question 3

What is a rouleau?

Answer 3

Erythrocytes that travel is a single file.

Question 4

Which capillary type consists of tight junctions that connect cells along with intercellular clefts that allow only small substances to move across its barrier?

Answer 4

Continuous

Question 5

Which capillary type contains an incomplete basement membrane, large intercellular clefts, and large fenestrations? Where can it be found within the body?

Answer 5

Sinusoids and they can be found in bone marrow, the spleen, and some endocrine glands.

Question 6

Which capillary type is found in the skin or lungs? Which capillary type is usually found in areas with tons of fluid transport due to its many pores?

Answer 6

Continuous

Fenestrated

Question 7

What is the function of capillary exchange? What are the influences of capillary exchange? What is NFP and what is its function?

Answer 7

Movement of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid.

Filtration and reabsorption

Net filtration pressure and it is the difference between filtration pressure and reabsorption pressure.

Question 8

What connects arterioles to venules? What are the characteristics of venules?

Answer 8

Capillaries

Venules possess thin walls that do not maintain shape.
All three vessel types, but the tunica media is thin due to lack of smooth muscle.
Acquire thicker walls when enlarged.

Question 9

What transports blood from the tissues to the heart? What are the characteristics of this vessel?

Answer 9

Veins

Veins possess a thinner tunica interna and tunica media than arteries.
They lack an elastic lamina.
Cannot withstand high pressure.

Question 10

What is the vascular sinus and what is its function? Which two pumps are used in venous return and what are their functions?

Answer 10

A vein with a thin endothelial wall that promotes venous return.

Skeletal and respiratory pumps.

The skeletal muscle pump pushes blood through the valve closest to the heart in a process called “milking”.
The respiratory pump decreases pressure in the thoracic cavity and increases pressure in the abdominal cavity by inhalation.

Question 11

What is a portal system? What is a portal vein? What causes deep vein thrombosis? What are varicose veins?

Answer 11

Two capillary beds in sequence with each other.
Vein that passes blood from one capillary network to another.

A clot in the vein, which is most common in the calf region.

Dilated and tortuous veins and possess nonfunctional valves.

Question 12

What are the percentages in the blood reservoirs? What is 115-70?

Answer 12

64% blood in the systemic veins and venules.
13% systemic arteries and arterioles.
9% pulmonary vessels.
7% systemic capillaries.

110 ;)

Question 13

What pressure is exerted by blood onto the blood vessel walls? What is the difference between tachycardia and bradycardia? Which term describes the first korotkoff sound heard through a stethoscope? Which term describes the last sound?

Answer 13

Hydrostatic

Tachy-fast ; Brady-slow

Systolic/Diastolic

Question 14

Which three measurements are regulated in the cardiovascular system in the medulla oblongata? Which reflexes regulate neural activity? Which reflex monitors BP and which reflex monitors chemical composition of blood?

Answer 14

Stroke volume, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Baroreceptor and chemoreceptor

Baroreceptor
Chemoreceptor

Question 15

What is the function of a hormone regarding blood pressure regulation? Where does the autonomic regulation of BP receive its input from? Which nerves are important in the sympathetic region of the ANS? Parasympathetic?

Answer 15

To alter cardiac input, systemic vascular resistance, and total blood volume.

Sensory receptors, cerebral cortex, limbic system, and hypothalamus.

Cardiac accelerator nerves and vasomotor nerves.

Vagus nerves.

Question 16

What are the functions of the lymphatic system? What is the immune system

Answer 16

Recover fluid, inspect it for the disease agents, activate immune responses, and return the fluid back into the bloodstream.

It’s a cell population that inhabits all organs and defends the body from agents of disease.

Question 17

How much fluid is reabsorbed by the blood capillaries? What specific term lives in the small intestine and absorbs dietary lipids/fat-soluble vitamins that are not absorbed in the capillaries? What does lymph resemble more: plasma or interstitial fluid? Why?

Answer 17

85%

Lacteals

Interstitial fluid because there is much less protein in lymph.

Question 18

How is lymph made? What is the function of a lymphatic capillary? Which parts of the body have no blood vessels?

Answer 18

Lymph is made from interstitial fluid that moves into the lymphatic capillaries.

It’s a terminal one way structure that permits interstitial flow into the vessel, but not out of the vessel.

The cornea of the eye and the skin.

Question 19

What forces help the flow of lymph? What are reticular cells? What are dendritic reticular cells? What is lymphatic tissue made from?

Answer 19

Skeletal muscle pump, respiratory muscle pump, and arterial pulsation.

Reticular cells are branched stationary cells that contribute to the strength of a lymphatic organ.

Dendritic reticular cells are branched cells found in the epidermis, mucous membranes, and lymphatic organs.

Aggregations of lymphocytes in the connective tissues of mucus membranes and various organs.

Question 20

What are the characteristics of lymphatic nodules? What is the common lymphatic nodule we discussed in lecture? What are the primary lymphatic organs and the secondary lymphatic organs?

Answer 20

Not surrounded by a capsule and have dense masses of lymphocytes and macrophages that congregate in response to pathogens.

Peyer’s patches

Red bone marrow and the thymus.

Lymph nodes, tonsils, the spleen, and red bone marrow.

Question 21

What structure(s) cleanse the lymph? What do they consist of? What are the five tonsils? Where is red pulp and white pulp found? What structure consists of afferent and efferent pathways that make them unique? Which organ has a capsule with trabeculae and is the graveyard for erythrocytes? What are the three functions related to blood cells?

Answer 21

Lymph nodes. Consist of interspersed reticular fibers that add strength and act as a net to catch foreign substances.

1 pharyngeal, 2 lingual, and 2 palatine.

Spleen.
Lymph nodes.
Spleen

1. Macrophages remove worn out or defective blood cells/platelets.
2. Storage of platelets.
3. hemopoiesis.

Question 22

What makes up the second line of defense in the immune system? What is the third line of defense? What is hyaluronidase? What are the five phases of phagocytosis?

Answer 22

Leukocytes, macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, NK cells, inflammation, and fever.

Adaptive immunity.

Enzyme used by pathogens to make hyaluronic acid less viscous.

Chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion, digestion, and killing.

Question 23

What is the term for a phagosome that fuses with lysosomes to form phagolysosome? What term is used to describe the attachment of a phagocyte to a microbe or other foreign material? What term is used to describe the projections of phagocytes, called pseudopods?

Answer 23

Digestion

Adherence

Ingestion

Question 24

What proteins discourage microbial growth and inhibit microbial production? What are the two families of these proteins? What is opsonization? What are the general purposes of inflammation?

Answer 24

Antimicrobial proteins

Interferons and compliment proteins

Process by which bacteria is more appetizing by the coating of microbial cells.

1. Limit spread of pathogens.
2. Remove debris from damaged tissue.
3. Initiate tissue repair.

Question 25

What chemical causes the vessels to dilate? What are the molecules that help attract phagocytes to foreign cells? When a virus infects cells, some cells have the ability to release (term), which are chemicals that activate other cells to defend against the virus. What are the events, in order, leading up to inflammation?

Answer 25

Histamine

Compliment proteins

Interferons (they deal with viruses, not bacteria) key reminder

Cells release histamine, vasodilation occurs, phagocytes arrive at the site and begin to engulf the foreign invaders.

Question 26

What assists neutrophils and macrophages in phagocytosis by way of opsonization? What are the two types of adaptive immunity? Why is adaptive immunity different than innate? What is the difference between cell-mediated and humoral immunity?

Answer 26

C3b

Cell-mediated and humoral

Because of adaptive’s specificity for foreign molecules (antigens or non-self) and it is slower to respond. Also has memory of previous encounters.

Cell-mediated allows for lymphocytes to directly attack and destroy foreign cells or diseased host cells and rids of any pathogen that is inaccessible to antibodies.

Humoral is mediated by antibodies that do not directly attack the pathogen, but rather tag it for destruction.

Question 27

What is an antigen? What are antigenic determinants? What are haptens? What characteristics enable the body to distinguish “self” molecules from foreign ones?

Answer 27

Any molecule that triggers an immune response.

Certain regions of an antigen molecule that stimulate an immune response.

Haptens are too small to be antigenic, but can trigger an immune response by combining with a host.

MHC.

Question 28

What are the cells that leave the thymus and colonize lymphatic tissues and organs everywhere in the body? What is the function of active helper T cells? What happens when costimulation occurs after MHC 2 binds with CD4?

Answer 28

Naive T cells

To act as a costimulator for other T cells and enhance proliferation of B cells and NK cells.

Activated helper T cells undergo clonal selection into active T cells and memory helper T cells.

Question 29

What is the function of active cytotoxic T cells? What are the various substances Tc Cells secrete? What are their functions?

Answer 29

Tc Cells leave the lymphatic tissue and secrete various substances to kill infected targeted body cells with the specific antigen.

Granzymes, which trigger apoptosis of a target cells.

Perforin, which is a glycoprotein that is responsible for pore formation in cell membranes of target cells.

Granulysin, which destroys intracellular microbes. Microptosis

Lymphotoxin, which is a toxic molecule that causes fragments in the target cells DNA.

Question 30

What are the actions used to disable an antigen for destruction?

Answer 30

1. Neutralize the antigen by binding toxins and preventing attachment of viruses to body cells.
2. Immobilizing bacteria that causes bacteria to lose their mobility by binding to flagella.
3. Agglutinate and precipitate the antigen, which means there are two binding spots that can connect to each other and allow phagocytic cells to ingest agglutinated microbes.
4. Activation of the complement by way of antigen-antibody complexes.
5. Connecting antigen-bearing pathogens to each facilitating phagocytosis.

Question 31

What does the term immunological memory mean? What are the differences between primary and secondary response?

Answer 31

It’s the memory for specific antigens that have triggered immune responses in the past. “Memory Cells”

Primary response is triggered by first exposure to a specific antigen.
There is a slow rise in IgM and IgG levels for several days after exposure, then followed by a gradual decline.

Secondary response is the subsequent exposure to the same antigen that triggers greater IgG levels from activation of memory cells. The basis for immunization by vaccination to trigger memory cells without causing illness.