a&p fall test Flashcards
(177 cards)
1
Q
define anatomy
A
the study of the structures of the body
2
Q
define physiology
A
the functions of the body and how they work
3
Q
what are the 6 functional characteristics needed to maintain human life?
A
-metabolism, break down & build up molecules.
-responsiveness, ability to respond to changes.
-movement, moving the body or part within like blood flow.
-growth, body size through cells or extracellular material
-differentiation, into specialized cells
-reproduction, of new cells or new humans
4
Q
what is homeostasis?
A
to maintain equilibrium through regulation and feedback loops
5
Q
how do nerve impulses affect homeostasis?
A
quick and specific
6
Q
how do hormones affect homeostasis?
A
slower and broad
7
Q
what are positive feedback loops?
A
enhances stimulus causing it to be amplified, pushing the body away from homeostasis.
ex: childbirth, contractions of uterus cause release of oxytocin which stimulates stronger contractions until childbirth
8
Q
what are negative feedback loops?
A
reduces or stops stimulus preventing severe changes within the body, decreasing the difference between current level and set point.
ex: sweating, when youre hot your sweat glands release sweat to be evaporated on your skin to cool you down
9
Q
what is homeostatic imbalance?
A
occurs when control centre cannot properly respond to stimulus. this leads to dysfunction and disease
10
Q
what can cause homeostatic imbalance?
A
overtime the body cant respond properly to things causing these distructive changes. this can happen because of age like being less aware of thirst
11
Q
what is the octet rule?
A
an atom is stable when it has 8 outer valence electrons, a full outer shell
12
Q
what is the role of electrons in chemical bonding?
A
electrons on the valence shell interact with other nuclei and involve in chemical reactions
13
Q
what is an ionic bond?
A
strongest chem bond, transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another resulting in ions
14
Q
what is a covalent bond?
A
formed by the sharing of valence electrons between two atoms. can be polar or non polar
15
Q
what is a hydrogen bond?
A
weak attractions between partial + and - that always includes H in the polar molecule
16
Q
what is an ion?
A
a charged atom, happens when an atom gains or loses an electron. can be either anion or cation
17
Q
what is an anion? what is a cation?
A
anion- gains elec (-)
cation- loses elec (+)
18
Q
what are the types of covalent bonds?
A
polar- unequal sharing of electrons (H2O)
nonpolar- equal sharing of electrons (CH4)
19
Q
is CO2 or H2O polar?
A
H2O is polar, CO2 is nonpolar
20
Q
what is a polar compound? what makes a non polar compound?
A
-two atoms do not share electrons equally.
-atoms are shared equally.
21
Q
what factors affect chemical reaction rates?
A
-high temp speeds up rate
-particle sizes, smaller=faster
-catalyst speed up rates
-enzymes speed up rates
- increased concentration of reactants will increase the frequency of collisions between the two reactants causing it to be faster
22
Q
what is a synthesis reaction?
A
two components combine to make a larger molecule (a + b = ab)
23
Q
what is a decomposite reaction?
A
bonds are broken between larger molecules (ab= a + b)
24
Q
what is an exchange reaction?
A
bonds between reactants are broken and rearranged (ab + c = ac + b)
25
what is a redox reaction?
type of exchange reaction, atoms are reduced when they gain elec, and oxidized when lose elec
26
why are redox reactions important?
they are a main source of energy
27
why are chemical reactions in the body are often
irreversible?
Energy requirements to go backward may be too
high, or reactants that have been converted to products cannot convert back
28
what is matter?
has mass and occupies space
29
what is energy?
the ability to work, to move
30
what is kinetic energy?
puts matter into motion
31
what is potential energy?
energy that is stored
32
what is an element? what are the most common in the body?
an element is a substance that can't be broken down.
C,O, H, N. less elements are S sulfur, and P phosphorus
33
what is an isotope?
"heavy element", has more or less neutrons than the element normally would
34
what is a radioisotope?
a radioactive isotope, nucleus has decayed and it emits electromagnetic energy.
can be used for carbon dating, seeing when something stopped eating
35
what is a molecule?
made by the covalent bonding of two or more atoms
36
what is a compound?
molecules made up of two or more different elements
37
what is a mixture?
two or more substances that are mixed together but not chemically combined and can be physically separated
38
what is an enzyme
proteins that help to speed up chemical reactions in the body, is a biological catalyst
39
what is a catalyst?
increases rate of chem reactions without being chemically changed or being consumed by the reaction
40
what is an organic compound? inorganic?
organic- large, covalently bonded, and contains carbon; proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbs
inorganic- simple and do not contain carbon; water, salts, acids, and bases
41
what is the importance of water and salt with respects to homeostasis?
salts dissolve in water creating electrolytes to maintain cells. Ionic balance is vital for homeostasis. If electrolyte
balance is disrupted, virtually all organ systems cease to function.
42
what are acids? bases? pH scale?
acid- 0-6 more H
base- 8-14 more OH less H
pH scale is the measurement of the concentration of H in a solution
43
what is dehydration synthesis?
a covalent bond is created
by removing OH from one molecule and H from the
other, releasing water
44
what is hydrolysis?
a covalent bond is broken by adding OH from water to one molecule and H to the other (adding water back)
45
what are carbohydrates?
sugars and starches. main source of chem energy for metabolism contains C H and O
46
what are most organic compounds made from and how are they broken down?
generally made through dehydration synthesis
reactions and broken down by hydrolysis reactions
47
what are monosaccharides?
single unit of sugar
3-7 carbon
1:2:1 ratio, things like glucose
48
what are disaccharides?
two sugars, Formed by dehydration
synthesis of two
monosaccharides, too large
to pass through a cell
membrane
49
what are polysaccharides?
large chains of monosaccharides joined together by dehydration synth
50
what is starch? glycogen? cellulose?
starch- glucose storage in plants.
glycogen- glucose storage in animals.
cellulose- fiber made from glucose that most animals cannot digest
51
what do lipids contain?
glycerol and fatty acid chains
C H O and sometimes P
52
what is a triglyceride?
energy storage, insulation and
protection.
has a glycerol backbone ester bonded to fatty acid tails
53
what is a saturated fatty acid?
solid at room temperature. all carbons single bonded to H and saturated with hydrogen
54
what is unsaturated fatty acid?
liquid at room temp. have one or more carbons are
linked by double bonds, so they are not saturated
with hydrogen atoms.
55
what are phospholipids?
modified triglycerides, used in cellular mems that are made
of glycerol and two fatty acids
plus a phosphate group. had a hydrophillic head and hydrophobic tail
56
what are steroids?
has 4 rings of carbon. cholesterol is the most common. it helps in the digestion of other fats and is a building block for many hormones
57
what are Eicosanoids?
Eicosanoids are a group of unsat fatty acids. Prostaglandins help regulated blood pressure and immflamuation as well as being an alert sys in body. can also increase the sensitivity of pain receptors and induce fever.
58
what is primary protein structure?
sequence or order of
amino acids in the
polypeptide chain.
59
what is secondary structure?
refers to shapes like alpha (α) helices or beta (β) pleated sheets that form when H bonds between atoms in primary structure interact
60
what is tertiary structure?
the 3D shape of
a single polypeptide chain.
This shape arises from how
the chain folds based on
regions of amino acids that
are hydrophilic (fold outwards to be near water) or hydrophobic (fold to the inside, to get away
from water), or disulphide bridges (covalent bonds
between sulphurs from two cysteine amino acids)
61
what is quaternary structure?
occurs when two or
more polypeptide
chains join together
to make one functional
protein multimer like hemoglobin. not all proteins have this
62
what are fibrous proteins? Globular?
fibrous- strand-like insoluble molecules that provide mechanical support and strength to tissues
globular-compact, spherical, water soluble, and chemically active molecules that oversee most cellular functions
63
what is protein denature?
the loss of the 3D shape of glob protein, leading to loss of function. happens when protein is exposed to high heat or pH changes
64
what two parts make up enzymes?
apoenzyme (protein portion) and cofactors (helper molecules, typically metal ions) or coenzymes (organic molecules, often derived from vitamins).
65
what are holoenzymes?
Apoenzymes together with the necessary cofactors
or coenzymes are called holoenzymes, functional enzyme, which is catalytically active
66
what are the 3 steps for enzyme action?
1. Enzyme and substrate
come together at an active
site, forming an enzyme-
substrate complex.
2. Enzyme catalyzes the
reaction and transforms
substrate into products.
3. When the reaction is
complete, the enzyme is
unchanged and free to
catalyse another reaction.
67
what is DNA? RNA?
DNA-double helix molecule, located in the cell nucleus that contains cells genes
RNA- single-stranded molecule, mostly active outside of cell, works as messenger for DNA
68
what are the bases of DNA and RNA? what pairs with what?
Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines.
Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) (only RNA) are pyrimidines
a&t, g&c, a&u paired w each other through hydrogen bonding.
69
what are the 3 types of RNA
mRNA (messenger), tRNA (transfer) and rRNA (ribosomal)
70
Explain the role of ATP in cell metabolism
71
what is ATP
The chemical energy released from breaking down
glucose. contains RNA and 3 phosphate groups
72
how does ATP work?
hydrolyze an additional
phosphate from ATP, the energy from a phosphate being released and binding to another molecule,
phosphorylating it, can power a chemical reaction. the P can then return to the now ADP to be used again as ATP
73
why is ATP useful?
-ATP can power any enzyme
-made in mitochandria but can diffuse and be used anywhere to power a reaction, then ADP will diffuse back to the
mitochondria to recharge
74
what is metabolism?
the sum of all biochemical reactions in a cell involving nutrient. helps w growth, repair and energy
75
what is an anabolic pathway? what is a catabolic pathway?
-builds complex molecules
-breaks down complex molecules
76
what is an oxidation reaction?
involve the gain of oxygen or
loss of hydrogen atoms (and their electrons)
77
what is Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions?
oxidized substances losing electrons and reduced
substances gaining electrons
78
what happens to electrons when a reaction is oxidized?
lose elec
79
what happens to electrons when a reaction is reduced?
gain elec
80
what is the role of the 2 coenzymes in redox reactions?
act as hydrogen
(or electron) acceptors in oxidative pathway.
-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NAD+ is derived from vitamin B3 and can be reduced into NADH + H+.
-Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is derived
from Vitamin B2 and can
be reduced into FADH2.
81
what is substrate-level
phosphorylation?
chem bonds are broken and energy is used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. it does not require oxygen
82
what is Oxidative phosphorylation?
energy from food creates an electron transport chain at attach phosphates to ADP to convert it to ATP and requires oxygen
83
what is glycolysis? what does it produce? where does it take place?
converts sugar (glucose) into energy. It produces two molecules of pyruvate, ATP, NADH and water. The process takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell and uses lactic acid instead of oxygen
84
what is The Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
nutrients are broken down to release energy, which gets stored in the form of ATP. occurs in mitochandrial matrix fueled by
pyruvic acid from glucose breakdown and fatty
acids from fat breakdown. pyruvic acid enters transitional phase where each pyruvic acid is
converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), if oxygen is available
85
what is an Electron transport chain?
electrons pass through in a series of redox reactions, and release energy. energy from NADH
and FADH2 move H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the inter-membrane space. H+ diffuse back to through an enzyme which phosphorylates ADP to ATP as the H+ diffuses.
86
what is glycogenesis?
the process that forms glycogen from glucose, occurs in skeletal and liver muscles
87
what is glycogenolysis?
breaks down glycogen when blood glucose levels drop
88
what is gluconeogenesis?
forms glucose
from non-glucose molecules, such as glycerol or amino acids, to maintain blood glucose when
dietary sources and glucose reserves begin to be depleted to protect against low blood sugar
89
what is the chemical composition of the plasma
membrane?
described as fluid mosaic model.
has a lipid bilayer, glycolipids(lipid attached to cholesterol), cholesterol, intagreal proteins (go through mem), perfiferal proteins (attached to inside or outside of plasma mem)
90
what are the functions of the plasma membrane?
provides a barrier, selectively permeable, cell to cell communication attachment
91
what are membrane proteins?
allow cell communication with
environment.
92
what are integral and peripheral proteins?
in- goes through membrane, transport as channels or carriers
per- attached to plasma mem, functions in enzymes or mechnical cell functions
93
what is an ion channel?
forms a channel for ions to move through the plasma mem
94
what is a carrier?
Transports a specific
substance across membrane
by undergoing a change in
shape
95
what is a receptor?
passes message across mem and causes a reaction inside of the cell
96
what is an enzyme?
catalyzes reactions and split large molecules for easy entrance in the plasma mem
97
what is a linker?
Anchors filaments inside and
outside the plasma membrane,
providing structural stability
and shape for the cell
98
Describe the role of the glycocalyx when cells interact with their environment
Consists of sugars sticking out of
cell surface which allows for identification.
99
what are tight, desmosome, and gap junctions?
tight- holds 2 cells together not allowing anything to pass like in the brain
desmosome- scattered attachments along cells to join together to reduce tearing like in muscle cells
gap- channels from cell-cell allowing some molecules to pass found in heart cells so they can beat together
100
passive transport?
substances move down CG no energy required.
101
active transport?
substances move against CG and energy is required
102
what is simple diffusion? what kind of transport is it?
diffusion through the plasma
membrane without using a channel or carrier. It can
only be done by lipids or small uncharged molecules (passive trans)
103
what is facilitated diffusion? what kind of transport is it?
sugars, amino acids, or
ions are moved through the plasma membrane by
binding to transport protein carriers in the membrane or by moving through channels (passive trans)
104
what is osmosis? what kind of transport?
the movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane (passive trans)
105
what is membrane potential?
voltage across the cell
membrane that occurs due to a separation of oppositely charged particles (ions)
106
what is primary active transport? secondary?
primary- uses ATP to transport molecules against CG by changing shape so the solute can bind to the protein and be pumped across
secondary- no ATP is required. Energy from ion gradient diffusion is used indirectly to drive transport of other solutes
107
what is endocytosis? exocytosis?
-transport into the cell
- transport out of the cell
108
what is phagocytosis? pintocytosis?
both types of endocytosis:
phag- cell eating, plasma mem wraps around sunstance and pulls into a vacuole to break down
pinto- cell drinking, takes in extracellular fluid with dissolved substances into cell by vacuole.
109
what is Receptor-mediated endocytosis?
uses receptors to bring in something specific frojm the outside of the cell
110
what elements make up the cytoskeleton?
microvilli-allows for more surface area
microfill- actin protein as a solid rod shape thats twisted
inter- fibrous proteins coiled together
microtub- tubulin proteins forming a hollow tube
111
what is the role of centrioles?
base of cillia and flagella. cillia and flagella are made up of microtublules that have doublets connected by dynein protein and a central pair. basal body that holds it into the cell, which has triplets instead of doublets and no central pair
112
how do cillia and microvilli differ?
cillia- used for movement of substances outside of cell
microvilli- used to increase surface area
113
what are peroxisomes?
membranous sacs containing
enzymes that are used to
oxidize and detoxify substances like alcohol
114
what is a genetic code?
uses a gene’s DNA sequence to
build a protein with specific protein
RNA builds a cody of DNAs genes to be transported and used to build a protein
115
what is chromatin?
made of nucleosomes where histone protein clump together and DNA wraps around them to condense them into chromosomes. a mixture of DNA and proteins that form the chromosomes found in the cells of humans and other higher organisms
116
what is the function of genes?
contain instructions that tell your cells what proteins to make
117
what are the two phases of protein synthesis?
transcription- DNA to RNA
translation- RNA to amino acids
118
what are triplets/codons, and anticodons?
triplets/codon- set of 3 nitrogen/nucleotide bases (A,T,C,G)
anticodon-sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that is complementary to a specific codon on an mRNA molecule
119
Describe the process of DNA replication
takes place in the S phase. when DNA helix uncoils and hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are broken.Each nucleotide strand of the DNA acts as a template for the construction of a
complementary nucleotide strand. it will now be made up of one old strand and one new strand.
120
what are centromeres?
links sister chromatids together and assembles kinetochore.
121
what is a centrosome?
organizes microtubules in cell div. composed of two centrioles and a mass of protein for building microtubules.
122
what is a chromosome?
condensed version of chromatin. composed of DNA
two sister chromatids
joined at centromere
123
what are chromatids?
one of the two identical halves of a chromosome that has been replicated in preparation for cell division
124
what is the cell cycle?
series of changes that a cell
undergoes from the time it is formed until it reproduces
2 major periods; interphase and cell division
125
explain interphase. what happens in G1, S phase, and G2?
period from cell formation to cell division.
G1- cell is synthesizing proteins and actively growing
S- DNA is replicated
G2- cell getting ready to divide, enzymes and proteins are synthesized and distributed
throughout the cell
126
what is DNA polymerase?
attaches to one strand of DNA and joins nucleotides into a new complementary strand
127
explain the leading and lagging strands of DNA
leading- moving towards
the replication fork where DNA is “unzipping”
lagging- backwards, towards the
replication fork, so nucleotides can only be added in the opposite direction of unzipping.
128
what is DNA? what is RNA?
DNA- double strands, arranged
in a double helix. holds the genetic code
RNA- single strands. translates DNA to proteins
129
what are Daughter chromosomes?
single chromosomes that
were previously sister
chromatids but have now
been pulled apart during anaphase
130
what is mitosis?
division of the nucleus in which replicated DNA is distributed to new daughter cells. makes somatic body cells.
starts w 46 chromosomes, ends w 46 chromosomes
produces two daughter cells
131
what is Cytokinesis?
the process of dividing the cytoplasm
132
explain early prophase of mitosis
Chromatin condenses, forming visible chromosomes which are held together by centromere.
centrosome synthesizing microtubules (mitotic spindles) push each centrosome to the opposite poles of the cell. the rest of the microtubules are called asters.
133
explain late prophase of mitosis
nuclear envelope breaks up. mitotic spindles attach to kinetochores and pull chromosomes to the centre of the cell. asters push poles farther apart
134
explain metaphase of mitosis
centromeres align at metaphase plate (centre) by spindle fibres.
135
explain anaphase of mitosis
centromeres of chromosomes
split simultaneously, each sister chromatid now becomes a separate chromosome. Chromosomes are pulled toward their respective poles by kinetochores.
this is the shortest phase.
136
explain telophase of mitosis
Each set of chromosomes at opp poles uncoil to form chromatin. New nuclear membranes form, nucleoli reappear and spindle fibers disappear.
137
explain Cytokinesis of mitosis
begins during late anaphase and
continues through mitosis. A ring of actin microfilaments contracts to form a cleavage furrow
until the two daughter cells are pinched apart
138
in mitosis, if there are 46 chromosomes, how many chromatid are there?
92
139
what is the function meiosis?
the production of gametes, introduces genetic variability, and reduces the number of chromosomes
140
what is a diploid cell? haploid?
dip- 2n, 46 chrom, most cells
hap- n, 23 chrom, gametes have this so they can combined w someone elses
141
how many cells at the end of meiosis? how many times does DNA replicate?
ends with 4 genetically diff daughter cells
DNA replicates only once
142
explain prophase 1
starts w diploid cells. synapsis is when homologous replicated
chromosomes pair up forming tetrads consisting of four chromatids.
crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromatids which the place where it happens is called the chiasmata, this makes them all unique.
143
explain metaphase 1
tetrads line un at metaphase plate. theres a 50% chance of which way each chromosome will be pulled in either direction.
144
explain anaphase 1
each tetrad is pulled apart from 4-2, each chromosome is till made of two sis chromatid
145
explain telophase 1
nuclear envelope may or may not reform. some cells may go into interkinesis
there is no DNA replication so cells are haploid
146
explain interkinesis
brief rest period between
meiosis I and meiosis II
147
explain prophase 2, metaphase 2, and anaphase 2.
both are just like mitosis but the cells start as haploid
p- sis chromatid held by centromere
m- microtubules attach to kinetochore and line chromosomes up at plate
a-Sister chromatids from meiosis I are separated and pulled toward opposite poles resulting in each cell getting one of the daughter chromosomes.
148
what is the end result of meiosis 2?
ends with 4 daughter cells that are haploid and all genetically different.
149
define allele, locus, genotype and phenotype.
allele- a repersentation of a gene. can be homozygous, AA or aa, or heterozygous, Aa.
locus- a spot on the chromosome where a specific gene can be found.
geno- genes that determine a trait
pheno- physical expression of geneotype
150
what is dominant recessive inheritance?
dom- suppresses expresion of recessive allele
rec- only expressed if both letters are lowercase
151
what is co dominance? what is incomplete dominance?
co- express both alleles as themselves, would expresses both red and white pigment
in- produces a mixture of the two alleles and would produce pink
152
what are sex linked traits?
when a gene mutation is present on a sex chromosome (X) which affects men more than women.
153
what is autosomal dom and rec?
dom- in every generation. male and female equally affected
rec- skips generations. male and female equally affected
154
what are homologous chromosomes?
pairs of chromosomes, one paternal and one maternal,
which carry the same genes, but do not express the trait in the same way
155
what is a karyotype?
counted pairing of
chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell. It can be used detect chromosomal abnormalities
156
what are the functions of epithelial tissue?
forms boundaries between things like epidermis or digestive organs. protection, absorption, secretion, sensory reception, filtration, and excretion
157
what is simple squamous epithelia?
made of a single layer of cells, easily allows things to pass, and located at sites of filtration like lungs or blood vessels.
158
what is simple cuboidal epithelia?
absorbs and secretes, forms the smallest ducts of glands or kidney tubules
159
what is simple columnar epithelia?
nucleus at the bottom of cell for protection, and has goblet cells to produce mucus. lines the digestive tract, in the intestines have microvilli.
160
what is pseudostratified columnar epithelia?
cells of varying heights giving the appearance of many layers but only has one. has goblet cells and cillia for movement of mucus, found in trachea
161
what is stratified squamous epithelia?
provides protection, external part of the skin and can be keratinized for waterproofing
162
what is stratified cuboidal epithelia?
provides durability and secretion, found in ducts of some of the larger glands
163
what is stratified columnar epithelia?
found in pharynx, male urethra and gland ducts
164
what is transitional epithelia?
forms the lining of the
urinary bladder and is specialized to allow cells to change shape and stretch
165
what are Endocrine glands?
secrete hormones by exocytosis directly into the blood or lymph
ductless and made from epithelial tissue
found in the brain, larynx and pancreas
166
what are Exocrine glands?
have ducts that directly go somewhere like salivary glands. they secrete products through epithelial surface
167
Unicellular exocrine glands
goblet cells found in epithelial linings of intestinal and respiratory tracts.
musin dissolves in water to make mucus
168
multicellular exocrine glands
consist of a duct and
a group of secretory cells. They are surrounded by connective tissue that supplies blood and nerve fibers to the gland
169
what are simple glands, tubular glands, and alveolar glands?
sim- single duct that secretory cells share and can branch
tub-form long tubes that can be straight or coiled
alv- form sacs
170
what are Compound glands?
non-secretory duct cells
branch into multiple groups of secretory cells, either tubular or alveolar shaped or a combo of both
171
Merocrine glands
secretory products are released without resulting any damage to the cell. produces sweat, saliva, and pancreatic juice
172
Holocrine glands
accumulate products within the
cell and then bursts. produces oils
173
Apocrine glands
release their secretions by pintching off top portion of cell cytoplasm. found in mammary glands and how most animals sweat
174
The sodium-potassium pump can generate a cell membrane potential by?
actively transporting 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell
175
in mRNA processing, what gets removed?
introns. sometimes exons.
176
The ends of the linear chromosomes are maintained by the enzyme...
telomerase
177
complementary strands of DNA are...
3-5 (which is backwards of 5-3) and the opposite.
ex: DNA ATTG would be TAAC
