A + P TEST 2 Flashcards
(170 cards)
1
Q
what do body membranes do?
A
they line or cover, protect, and lubricate body surfaces.
2
Q
body membranes are divided into 2 major groups:
A
- the epithelial membranes
2. the connective tissue membranes
3
Q
the epithelial membranes:
A
include the cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes
4
Q
the connective tissue membranes:
A
represented by the synovial membranes
5
Q
all epithelial membranes contain what:
A
an epithelia sheet,
and are always combined with an underlying layer
6
Q
the cutaneous membrane, ie your _________, is the largest organ in the body
A
skin
unlike other epithelia membranes, the cutaneous membrane is exposed to air and is a dry membrane
7
Q
serous membranes occur in _______
A
in pairs
8
Q
the parietal layer lines a specific portion of the body cavity. it folds in on itself to form the __________, which covers the outside of the organs in that body cavity
A
the visceral layer
9
Q
_____________ line all the body cavities that are exposed to the exterior.
A
mucous membranes
the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts are all exposed to the exterior of the body and secrete mucous for protection and lube. the exception is the urinary tract, which does not secrete mucous for protection, therefore making the risk of infection higher
10
Q
connective tissue membranes consist of ______________
A
various connective tissues such as tendons and synovial membranes. they surround joint, providing a smooth surface that excretes a lubricating fluid.
11
Q
what else do synovial membranes line besides joints?
A
connective tissues called bursaes and tendon sheaths
12
Q
describe bursae and tendon sheath
A
the bursae is a closed sac line with a synovial membrane and filled with fluid
the tendon sheath is a layer of membrane around a tendon
13
Q
what is your cutaneous membrane?
A
your skin
14
Q
your skin and it’s appendages (sweat and oil glands, hair and nails) have specific functions, mainly to protect. Together these organs make up the ______________
A
integumentary system
15
Q
function of the skin include :
A
- heat regulation
- discriminatory membrane- keeps chemicals out and is waterproof to keep water and nutrients in. also bacteria out
- protection from the cold- our blanket as such-insulation
- protection from bumps and damage to internal organs
- cools the body- evaporation
- synthesizes vit D
- blocks UV radiation
16
Q
the skin in composed of 2 types of tissue:
A
the epidermis: the outer layer, made up of epithelium that is capable of becoming hard and tough
the dermis: that is underneath and made up of dense connective tissue
17
Q
when would the epidermis and dermis ever separate?
A
the epidermis and dermis are firmly connected. however, a burn, or friction, may cause them to separate, resulting in a blister
18
Q
the epidermis has special cells called _________ that produce a pigment called _________
A
melanocytes
melanin
the pigment ranges in color from yellow-brown-black. when the skin is exposed to sun, the melanocytes are activated into producing more pigment, therefore producing a tan. Freckles and moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot
19
Q
the dermis is a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to hold the body together. The dense connective tissue making up the dermis consists of 2 major regions:
A
- the papillary layer
2. the reticular layer
20
Q
the papillary layer:
A
or the dermal papillae are peg-like projections that cause ridges in fingers and toes(ie fingerprints)
21
Q
the reticular layer:
A
is the deepest skin layer. it contains the blood vessels, sweat and oil glads
22
Q
the dermis also has a large ___________ that sends messages to the ___________ for interpretations
A
nerve supply
central nervous system
23
Q
what are the 3 pigments that contribute to skin colour?
A
yellow
reddish brown
black
24
Q
excessive sun exposure depresses the immune system?
A
yes
25
skin appendages include the :
cutaneous glands,
hair and hair follicles, and nails.
each play a role in maintaining body homeostasis.
26
cutaneous glands are:
all exocrine glands that release their secretions to the skin via ducts. there are 2 types of glands: sebaceous and sweat glands
27
sebaceous (oil) gland
are all over the body, they secrete sebum for lube and are regulated by hormones. if an oil gland becomes blocked, a whitehead appears; if the accumulated material oxidizes and dries out, it darkens, forming a blackhead
28
2 types of sweat glands:
1. eccrine glands
| 2. apocrine glands
29
eccrine glands:
produce sweat, a bit acidic to limit the growth of bacteria. They also play a part in cooling body temp.
30
apocrine glands:
empty their secretions into hair follicles. These secretions contain fatty acids and proteins. When skin bacteria feeds on this secretion, it creates an odour. Apocrine glands start to function around puberty and have no effect on body temp
31
Hair
grows from hair follicles in the skin. we are born with a certain number. Eyelashes shield eyes from foreign particles, nose hairs prevent debris from entering the respiratory tract.
Our body hair has lost much of its importance; however, hair animals us it for insulation
32
hair follicles:
have small bands of smooth muscle cells called arrector pili. when these muscles contract, the hair is pulled upright causing goosebumps.
33
nail
Nails: hardened keratin, a rough protein that is waterproof and protects exposed skin surfaces. Nails are translucent in color, but bc of the rich blood supply in the dermis layer, their colour appears pink. This is an important factor when differentiating disease.
34
Raynauds's:
nail beds lose all colour due to the shut down of capillaries
35
Cyanosis
low oxygen in circulation- blue condition
36
bright red nails
temp may be increased as in fever
37
white spots
zinc or calcium deficiency
38
nail ridges:
mineral deficiency
39
apart from contact dermatitis, most skin problems stem from:
poor digestive tract. Some skin problems may relate to hormonal imbalances encountered predominantly during adolescence, or to allergy and toxicity.
40
vitamins and minerals for healthy skin and hair:
skin: A, C, E, B- complex, zinc, and EFA hair:vit B-complex, antioxidants and zinc
41
some types of cytoplasmic organelles
```
ribosomes
endoplasmic reticulum
golgi apparatus
lysosomes
peroxisomes
mitochondria
cytoskeleton
centrioles
```
42
ribosomes
sites for protein synthesis
43
endoplasmic reticulum
transports protein and lipid components
44
golgi apparatus
processes an packages proteins
45
lysosomes
contains digestive enzymes
46
peroxisomes
disarm free radicals
47
mitochondria
machine for cellular energy
48
cytoskeleton
protein structures-bones and muscles for cell
49
centrioles
help with movement of cells
50
some cells have tiny projections called ________ that move substances across the surface of the cell
Cilia
ie: respiratory tract is lined with ciliated cells that move mucus up and away from lungs. when they are longer they are called flagella. Their purpose is to propel the cell itself. the only flagellated cell in the body is the sperm.
51
passive transport
diffusion and filtration
52
active transport
solute pumping and bulk transport
53
describe diffusion and filtration
diffusion: the process of which molecules move away from a region where they are more concentrated to less concentrated
filtration: the process by which water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid or hydrostatic pressure.
54
osmosis
diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane, like the plasma membrane.
when a cell is surrounded by a solution, it presents an osmotic pressure on the cell. This reflects the solute concentration of the solution surrounding the cell.
55
isotonic solutions
such as interstitial fluid, have the same solute and water concentrations as cells do, therefore no visible changes will occur to the cell.
56
hypertonic solutions
contain more solutes than there are inside the cell, therefore water will leave the cell causing it to shrink
57
hypotonic solutions
contain fewer solutes, and more water outside of the cell than in the cell, therefore the cell will expand and grow.
58
cell energy or______
ATP
59
an example of an active process
whenever a cell uses some of it's energy (ATP) supply to move substances across the membrane
ie: solute pumping
bulk transport
60
solute pumping
moves substances across the membrane by protein carriers found along the membrane itself
61
Bulk transport
moves substances into and out of the cell in 2 ways: exocytosis and endocytosis
62
exocytosis:
moves substances out of the cells
63
endocytosis
into the cell
64
4 main groups of body tissue
epithelia tissue
connective tissue
muscle tissue
nervous tissue
65
epithelial tissue
covers surfaces, lines cavities and forms glands
66
connective tissue
supports, protects, and binds tissue to all parts of the body
67
muscle tissue
contracts or lengthens to produce movement
68
nervous tissue
conducts nerve impulses.
69
regeneration tissue repair
the injured tissue is replaced by the same type of cell
70
fibrosis tissue repair
the wound is repaired with scare tissue
71
the skeletal system
provides an internal framework for the body, protects the internal organs, and binds to skeletal muscles so that the contraction of muscle will produce movement.
72
how many bones in the body?
206
73
the skeleton is divided into 2 regions :
the axial skeleton
| the appendicular skeleton
74
the axial skeleton
is divided into 3 parts, the skull, the vertebral column, and thorax
75
the appendicular skeleton
all other bones
76
what holds the skeleton all together ?
joints, cartilage and ligaments
77
function of the bones:
```
bones give body shape and form:
protection
support
storage
hematopoiesis- blood cell formation inside the red bone marrow
movement
```
78
2 types of bone:
compact bone
| spongy bone
79
compact bone
is hard and dense, looks smooth and uniform. this type of bone makes up the main shaft of a long bone and the outer layer of other bones
80
spongy bone
is composed of small needlelike pieces of bone, filled with red marrow, and lots of open space. spongy bone is found at the ends of a long bone and the centre of all other bones
81
4 types of bones:
long bones
short bones
flat bones
irregular bones
82
example of a long bone
femur
83
example of a short bone
kneecap
84
example of a flat bone
sternum
85
example of an irregular bone
hip bone or vertebrae
86
the general structure of bone consists of:
- periosteum outer layer
- articular cartilage at the ends
- yellow or red marrow in the centre depending on age
87
periosteum
outer layer of the bone- a fibrous connective tissue membrane
88
articular
cartilage at the ends- a glassy hyaline cartilage, that provides a smooth, slippery surface that decreases friction at joints surfaces
89
the general anatomy of bone:
mature bone cells called OSTEOCYTES. these are found within the LACUNAE, tiny cavities within the bone matrix. the lacunae are arranged in circles called LAMELLAE. the centre of each circle is called the CENTRAL (HAVERSIAN) CANALS. These canals carry blood vessels and nerves to all areas of the bone.
90
the skeleton is formed from 2 of the strongest and most supportive tissues in the body:
cartilage and bone
91
ossification :
bone formation and growth. it involves 2 major phases. first hyaline cartilage becomes covered with a bone matrix. This is done by bone-forming cells called OSTEOBLASTS. shortly after birth most of the hyaline cartilage has been covered in bone.
92
osteoblast
bone forming cells
93
there are 2 factors that continually cause bone to remodel:
calcium levels in the blood and the stress of gravity and muscle pull on the skeleton.
this requires both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
94
osteoclasts
bone destroying cells
95
PTH hormone (parathyroid hormone ):
determines WHEN bone is to be broken down or formed in response to calcium ions in the blood. The stress of gravity and muscle pull determines WHERE bone is broken down or formed in order for the skeleton to remain strong and supportive
96
the repair of bone fractures involves 4 major events:
1. a hematoma
2. fibrocartilage callus formation
3. a bony callus
4. bone remodeling
97
a hematoma:
a blood-filled swelling forms after a fracture and prevents the bone cells from receiving any nutrients. The bone cells eventually die.
98
fibrocartilage callus formation:
this involves the growth of new capillaries into the clotted blood
99
a bony callus
is formed as osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate and multiply. The fibrocartilage is gradually replaced by the bony callus
100
bone remodeling
takes place in response to stress that is placed on the bone itself. bo
101
bones in utero start as ________
cartilage
102
what can cause atrophy?
lack of stress on the bones during development
103
the skull is formed by 2 sets of bones:
1. the cranium ( encloses and protects the brain)
2. the facial bones ( hold eyes in anterior position and allow facial muscle to show our feelings through smiles and frowns
104
all but one of the bones of the skull is joined together by sutures, which are interlocking, immovable joints:
the mandible (jawbone) is attached to the rest of the skull by a freely moveable joint.
105
the cranium is composed how how many bones:
| name them
```
8
the frontal bone
parietal bones x2
temporal bones x2
occipital bone
sphenoid bone
ethmoid bone
```
106
honeycomb air spaces in skull comprise the 4 paranasal sinuses :
```
sphenoid
ethmoid
frontal
maxillary
these paranasal sinuses surround the nasal cavity, lighten the skull bones and amplify the sound we make as we speak
```
107
fontanels:
are fibrous membranes in the skull, which allow for birth and growth of brain in infanthood. They are usually closed by age 12.
108
how many bones compose the facial bones:
14 bones
| the are all paired except the mandible, which is the only freely moving bone in the skull.
109
the ____________ bone is located in the back of the throat and is the only bone in the body not directly linked to another bone. it holds the back of the tongue in place
the hyoid bone
110
the vertebral column, the spine, is to protect the spinal cord and support the body in general the spine is made up of :
```
7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
1 sacrum
1 coccyx
```
- the lumbar are the strongest
- coccyx and sacrum and moveable during childbirth
- the vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible fibrocartilage called intervertebral discs.
111
the primary curvature ________ develops during fetal stage. the secondary curvature _______ develops during infancy
concave
| convex
112
the thoracic cage (bony thorax) has how many bones :
12
113
the ribs are divided in how many true and false ribs:
7 pairs of true- meaning they are connected directly to the sternum by costal cartilage
5 pairs that are false- meaning they are either indirectly connected to the sternum or not al all.
-the last 2 pairs of false ribs that are not connected to the sternum are called floating ribs
114
the sternum is formed by the fusion of 3 bones:
manubrium, body, and xiphoid process
115
the appendicular skeleton has how many bones:
126
includes the upper and lower limbs, the pectoral and pelvic girdles. the 2 girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
116
the pectoral girdle ( shoulder girdle) consists of 2 bones:
the scapulae- shoulder blades
| clavicle- collarbone
117
the pelvic girdles is formed by:
2 coxal bones, or hip bones. together with the sacrum and coccyx from the axial skeleton they make up the bony pelvis.
118
the hip bone is formed by the fusion of 3 bones :
the illium,
ischium
pubis
119
the lower limbs consist of:
the thigh
leg
foot
- they carry our body weight while we are standing: therefore these bones are much thicker and stronger than the bones of the upper limbs
120
the thigh consists of only one bone called_________
the femur.
| the heaviest and strongest bone in the body and can determine the full height of a person.
121
the leg consists of ____ bones
2 bones
| the tibia and fibula
122
joints have 2 functions:
1. they hold bones together
2.they give the skeleton mobility
(functionally and structurally)th
123
the functional classification is determined by:
the amount of movement.
124
the structural classification is determined by:
what separated the bony structure from the joint
125
all synovial joints have 4 characteristics:
1. articular cartilage- covers the ends of the bones, forming the joint
2. fibrous articular capsule- lined with a smooth synovial membrane
3. joint cavity- contains lubricating synovial fluid
4. reinforcing ligaments
126
synovial fluid is found inside joints its ________ water and a pH of ____
95%
7.4
it contains phagocytic cells to remove debris from injured and infected joint cavities
127
nutrients for the bones:
vit D, calcium, magnesium and manganese
| glucosamine sulfate is effective in relieving symptoms of osteoarthritis
128
`their are _______ phalanges in the hands
14
129
3 abdominal curvature
kyphotic (hunch back)
lordotic (sway back)
scoliosis
130
the skull has how many main parts
2
131
in total the vertebral column has how many vertebrae
33
132
why would someone receive a sternum puncture?
closest bone to the skin and least amount of fat and so it also filled with bone marrow. testing for blood diseases you may need a marrow sample.
133
the tip of the sternum is called the
xyphoid process
134
kyphotic
the curve of the spine or concave to the spine
135
lordotic
curve or convex to the back in the spine
136
bone diseases :
bacterial
osteoarthritis
rheumatoid arthritis
gout
137
the wrists have _____ and the ankles have ______
a group of small bones called:
carpals
tarsals
138
the palm of the hand has ___________ or the sole of the foot we have _________
metacarpals
| metatarsals
139
the pectoral girdle is made up of:
the clavicle
| the scapula x2
140
differences between the male and female pelvic girdle:
females are wider for birthing purposes. wider inlet and wider outlet and more shallow/shorter. where a mans pelvis will be narrow and a bit longer.
141
skin appendages:
cutaneous glands
hair
hair follicles
nails
142
homeostatic imbalance in the integumentary system:
burns
infections
allergy
hormonal disturbance
143
understanding tissue
INJURY -> INFLAMMATION AND IMMUNE RESPONSE -> TISSUE REPAIR
- epithelia tissue is easily generated with nourishment, scarring if not nourished, and depending on severity
- connective tissue is regenerated where blood supply is adequate, scarring if not nourished, and depending on severity
- muscle tissue, regeneration in skeletal muscle is poor, cardiac tissue mostly replaced by scar tissue
- nervous tissue, regeneration is poor to none, mostly replaced by scar tissue
144
Inflammation
when the body detects and injury, the blood vessels start allowing more fluid(clotting proteins) to leak out to bring cells to the area of repair. thats why we see swelling of the area and redness. underneath a scab you have granulation(scar tissue) tissue which is the building block for new tissue to come in, made of collagen
145
hypotonic
below normal tone or tension
146
hypertonic
excessive or above normal tone or tension
147
isotonic
having a uniform tension of the same tone
148
the muscular system:
provides for movement of the body and its parts, maintains posture. generates heat, and stabilizes joints.
149
3 major types of muscle tissue:
skeletal
smooth
cardiac
-they differ from each other by cell structure, body location and how each is triggered to contract
150
skeletal muscle
make up 40-50% of body weight. are attached to bone and skin are sometimes referred to as striated muscle bc the fibers appear to be striped. contraction are rapid, forceful , and voluntary, however, skeletal muscles tire easily and must be rested
151
smooth muscles
non-striated, they are mostly found in the walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the digestive tract. contractions are strong but slow and involuntary
152
cardiac muscle
found only in the hear. the network of cardiac muscle makes up the bulk of the heart and is strong yet elastic. the network is strong and efficient so the whole unit can expand and contract in rhythm. contractions are involuntary
153
4 important functions of muscle movement
```
movement
posture
heat production
joint stability
shivering
```
154
fascicles
individual muscle fibers arranged in bundles
155
each skeletal muscle fibre contains many filaments, made up of 2 kinds of protein called:
actin and myosin
-in movement the filaments attach to the actin filaments by means of cross-bridges btw the 2 types of filaments. using the energy ATP for repeated movements, the cross bridges pull all of the actin strands closer together. as the overlapping filaments slide together, the muscle fibre contacts, becoming shorter and thicker
156
what mineral is needed for movement of muscles
calcium is present in sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle cells. cal moves to the cytoplasm during the stimulation to contract muscles. energy comes from ATP molecules
157
rigor mortis
happens when there is no ATP release. the actin and myosin stay permanently attached, producing stiffness
158
4 types of muscle contractions:
twitch- multiple contractions of muscles by a single stimulus
tetanic- multiple contractions in rapid succession due to a series of stimuli
isotonic- produces movement of a joint
isometric- no movement, but increase in tension or strength of muscles
159
all muscles are attached to bones at 2 points:
THE ORIGIN is the immovable attachment; THE INSERTION is the movable bony attachment
160
tendons
attach muscle to bone and are dense fibrous connective tissue
161
voluntary muscle control
under conscious control of the nervous system . part of the somatic nervous system.
162
involuntary muscle control
- unconscious . it is part of the autonomic nervous system
163
an ________ is required to simulate a muscle contraction
action potential
| these are spread rapidly along the sarcolemma
164
all or none law of muscular contraction:
threshold stimulus
165
_________ heads attach to binding sites and "walk" across the actin filaments
myosin
| -requires calcium from SR, released by action potential
166
how is the skeletal muscle different from the cardia and smooth:
"multi nucleate"
| voluntary control
167
as muscle contracts, bonds of _________ molecules are broken (hydrolyzed) to release energy needed
ATP, ATP must be constantly regenerated
168
3 ways ATP can be regenerated
1. direct phosphorylation of ATP by creatine phosphate. creatine is exhausted quickly and easily
2. aerobic respiration (needs oxygen)- more ATP more energy and longer sustained ie endurance training (low to moderate) use glucose for energy
3. anaerobic respiration (does not need oxygen) -less ATP and shorter bursts of energy ie. power, short bursts, above and beyond what you can supply what you can supply oxygen for. use glucose for energy
169
aerobic/endurance
increased blood supply and mm. cells have more mitochondria and store more oxygen
170
resistance
contract mm. with as much force as possible to enlarged cells and connective tissue (hypertrophy)
