After Midterm 2

Question 1

What is the good? What is goodness? (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 1

Everyone agrees that it is called (named) Eudaimonia.

Question 2

Three definitions of happiness (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 2

1) Our definition or concept: has a lot to do with emotion
2) The ancient Greek definition: Flourishing.
3) Aristotle’s Definition

Question 3

What is the ultimate good for human beings (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 3

• People are agreed about its name: Eudaimonia
• The prefix, “eu,” means good
• And “daimonian” means spirit (it is the basis of our word demon)
• The word does not refer to an emotional state
• But how does “good spirit” refer to flourishing
• When one flourishes, it is as if one’s life were blessed by a good spirit.
• A divinely blessed life would be a flourishing life.
• One sense of the word “happy” means blessed. (cf. The Beatitudes)
• People are not agreed about what Eudaimonia means
• People suggest pleasure, honour, wealth, and contemplation
• Aristotle suggests we find a clue in the function of humans
• Aristotle suggests the unique capability or function of humans is reasoning
• Therefore, he defines Eudaimonia as activity of the soul in accordance with virtue (the best virtue) over a complete life
• How does this follow from our function being reasoning? What happened to reasoning?
• Here “soul” refers to the principle of life
• Humans have a rational principle of life (as opposed to vegetative or sensitive)
• The activity of a rational soul includes reasoning.

Question 4

3 things regarding virtue (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 4

1. English meaning of virtue
2. Greek meaning of arête: excellence of any kind
3. Aristotle’s definition of excellence: A state of mind involving decision making, with the best decision being the intermediate between two extreme vices

Question 5

Aristotle’s definition of excellence (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 5

A state of mind involving decision making, with the best decision being the intermediate between two extreme vices

Question 6

Aristotle’s definition of Eudaimonia (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 6

Aristotle’s Definition: Activity of the rational soul in accordance with excellence (or the best excellence) over a lifetime.

Question 7

What is excellence? How is excellence required? (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 7

Not by nature
Not by “book learning”

• Practice
• habituation
• repetition

All of these help form the disposition or character.

Aristotle does not explicitly address this question, but he does have an answer.

Question 8

The doctrine of the mean (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 8

Justice
¬	General Justice- Lawfulness 
¬	Specific Justice-Fairness
Fairness
¬	Distribution 
¬	Rectification, not equal to reciprocity

Question 9

Anselm’s Ontological Argument (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 9

Ontos: being

Ontology: the study of beings
¬ a branch of Metaphysics

Metaphysics: the study of the nature of reality

Epistemology: the theory of knowledge

First part of his argument-
Definition of God: a being then which nothing greater can be conceived.

Second part of his argument-
We understand the term god.

Third part of his argument-
God exists in the understanding.

Question 10

Deductive Knowledge (Has to do with hypnotist question, Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 10

Certainty but not now.

Ex, “1+2=3”
“if p than q. P therefore q”
“No bachelors are married”

Rationalism
Based on reason
Primacy given to reason

Question 11

Inductive Knowledge (has to do with hypnotist question, Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 11

Now, but no certainty

Ex, “10% of flash bulbs fail”
“No human is immortal”
“No human can be hypnotized into doing what they believe is immoral”

Empiricism
Based on observation
Primacy given to reason

Question 12

Define death

Answer 12

Passage in the Phaedo where Socrates says death is the separation of soul from the body

Question 13

Define virtue

Answer 13

A state that decides or chooses consisting of a mean relative to us.

Question 14

Two types of motions (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 14

Moved motions (require an Explanation) (possible explanation: the mover was itself moved. But
you cannot go back forever). (Circle
drawn around this on the board).

Unmoved motions (?)

Finite matter
+ infinite time
=finite combinations
=repeats

Question 15

Argument about motion (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 15

It is certain, and obvious to the senses, that in this world some things are moved. But everything that is moved is moved by another.

Question 16

Two types of effects (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 16

Caused (need an explanation for that cause, there needs to be a first).

Uncaused (?)

Sustaining cause: if the sustaining cause isn’t in effect than the effects themselves cannot go on to have further causes.

Question 17

Uncaused effect (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 17

based on the notion of an efficient cause: We find that among sensible things there is an ordering of efficient causes, and yet we do not find—nor is it possible to find—anything that is an efficient cause of its own self. For if something were an efficient cause of itself, then it would be prior to itself—which is possible.

Question 18

Sustaining cause effects

Nicomachean Ethics

Answer 18

taken from the possible and the necessary, and It goes like this: Certain of the things we find in the world are able to exist and able not to exist for some things are found to be generated and corrupted and, as a result, they are able to exist and able not to exist.

Question 19

Are contingent things able to exist (Nicomachean Ethics)

Answer 19

Contingent things are possible to exist and possible not to exist. A necessary thing would be able to exist, an impossible thing is not able to exist.

Question 20

Goals as a Knower (First Meditation)

Answer 20

To have no false beliefs: have no beliefs

To believe all true beliefs: Just believe everything

Question 21

Reasons to doubt one’s own beliefs (First Meditation)

Answer 21

1. The senses can deceive—better not to trust
   - Objective, can’t doubt (all) the senses under proper conditions,
   
   1. Good senses
   2. Multiple senses confirming,
2. I might be dreaming.
   - But cannot be wrong about the simplest basic elements or “simple reasoning” which make up our dreams.
3. There might be an evil genius.

Belief system include falsities,
To get rid of falsities start over.
Can’t check every belief.
Undermine beliefs by undermining foundations.
(Overall Strategy: to find undoubtable beliefs to serve as new foundation).

It’s been called Radical Doubt

Question 22

The cogito argument (First Meditation)

Answer 22

I think, therefore I am.

Someone has suggested it should be “Something thinks” instead of “I think” because it already insinuates you exist.

Descartes when he refers to the soul is referring to the mind. When he refers to the mind he is not referring to the brain. When he refers to the brain he is referring to part of material body.

The difference between these arguments is Decarte thought you can’t think without being aware of it, and he thought that you could walk without being aware of it.

Question 23

Dualism (First Meditation)

Answer 23

There are 2 kinds of substance: 
-minds 
-matter
Presuppositionless starting point, 
Either Descartes doubts too little or he doubts too much.

Question 24

Is Descartes a rationalist (First Meditation)

Answer 24

It is perceived that Descartes is a rationalist

Question 25

Solipsism (First Meditation)

Answer 25

Ideas--Innate, Cause from outside, Invented by me He's going to try and prove the existence of god through the three steps

Question 26

Circular reasoning that Descartes uses (First Meditation)

Answer 26

The problem of the external world: To know anything about external world need to remove evil genius If there must be as much in the cause as the effect then only a good/perfect God can explain my idea of God If there is all powerful perfect/good God then no evil genius These rotate in a circular motion, from top to bottom

Question 27

Who is a substance dualist (First Meditation)

Answer 27

Descartes | -There are two kinds of substance (mind and matter)

Question 28

Mind, soul: (First Meditation)

Answer 28

Thinking, un-extended substance

Question 29

Body, brain (matter): (First Meditation)

Answer 29

extended, unthinking substance

Question 30

What is monism (First Meditation)

Answer 30

- There is only one kind of substance | - 2 kinds of monism: materialism and idealism

Question 31

How can there be casual interaction

Answer 31

Occasionalism

Question 32

Philosophy of mind

Answer 32

Refer to notes on January 31st

Question 33

Materialism

Answer 33

Refer to notes on January 31st

Question 34

Panpsychism

Answer 34

the view that everything has a mind Pan: all--everything has a mind Psychism: souls

Question 35

Empiricists

Answer 35

- John Locke- Tabula Raza - G. Berkeley- To be is to be perceived - D. Hume

Question 36

Rationalists

Answer 36

- R. Descartes- I think therefore I am - B. Spinoza - G. Leibniz

Question 37

Hylas-->matter: Immediately perceived (First Meditation)

Answer 37

Dog's footprints Uses Senses Sensible qualities

Question 38

Hylas-->matter: Mediately perceived (First Meditation)

Answer 38

Dog was on beach Uses sense Use inferences

Question 39

What is the mind

Answer 39

a. A distinct kind of substance (Substance Dualism) b. A variety of certain sorts of behaviour and dispositions (Behaviourism) c. The brain (Reductive Materialism) d. It is like a program running on the brain (Functionalism) e. An outdated idea based on folk psychology (Eliminative Materialism) f. The only kind of substance that exists (Idealism)

Question 40

Does matter as a substance exist

Answer 40

a. Yes | b. No

Question 41

Does innate (knowledge you were born with) knowledge exist?

Answer 41

a. Yes | b. No (Berkeley's position

Question 42

Define Empiricism

Answer 42

Our best (most trustworthy) knowledge is from experience.

Question 43

Excessively pictorial (First Meditation)

Answer 43

comes from rejecting abstracts theory of ideas. Which ultimately comes from Tabula Raza John Locke-had the idea of Tabula Raza- “Blank Slate”

Question 44

Are ideas equivalent to notions (First Meditation)

Answer 44

Ideas does not equal notions

Question 45

Burden of proof (First Meditation)

Answer 45

Berkeley: there is no matter | Most people: there is matter

Question 46

Secondary qualities (First Meditation)

Answer 46

2 arguments: One based on pain and pleasure and one based on relativism. The list of secondary qualities include: temperature, smell, tastes, sounds, and colours.

Question 47

Primary qualities

Answer 47

1 argument based on relativism | The list of primary qualities include: size, shape, motion, and weight.

Question 48

Sense data

Answer 48

J. Locke: tabula raza. | Berkeley: we assemble sensations (sense data) into objects.

Question 49

Aquinas' Objection #1

Answer 49

Objection 1: If one pair of contraries were infinite, it would totally destroy the other contrary. God is a certain infinite good, and if god existed there would be no evil in the world. Evil exists, therefore God does not.

Question 50

Aquinas' Objection #2

Answer 50

Things that can be accomplished with few principles are not done through more principles. Everything that happens in the world can be achieved through other principles without God. Things that are natural are traced back to nature as a principle, things that are purposeful are traced back to human reason or will as a principle. Therefore, there’s no need to claim there is a God Exodus 1:14 contradicts this by saying under the personage of God, “I am Who am”.

Question 51

Aquinas' five ways to prove there is a God

Answer 51

1. It is obvious to the sense that things in the world are moved. Everything moved is moved by another. For something to affect movement it must be lead from potentiality into actuality which can only be done by a being in actuality. Something can’t be both a mover and be moved. The thing that moves something is moved by another, and so on, but doesn’t go to infinity. There has to be a first mover, which is perceived as God. 2. Sensible things have efficient causes. There is not efficient cause of its own self, because that would mean it would be prior to itself. It’s impossible to go onto infinity among efficient causes. The first is a cause of the intermediate and the intermediate is a cause of the last, regardless if the intermediate is part of many causes or by just one. When a cause is removed, so is its effect. If the efficient causes went on to infinity there would be no first efficient cause therefore no last effect or any intermediate efficient causes. There must be a first efficient cause—God. 3. Certain things are able to exist and able not to exist. This is because some things are found to be generated and corrupted resulting in them being able to exist or not be able to exist. It’s impossible everything that exists should be like this because if it is able to not exist at some point it does not. If everything is able to not exist then nothing would exist at some point, if this is true nothing would still exist. Not all beings are able to exist (and able not to exist), it must be that there is something necessary. Every necessary being has a cause of its necessity from outside itself or it doesn’t. If beings have a cause of their necessity it is impossible to go onto infinity. One must propose something that is necessary that is a cause of necessity for other [necessary] things. This cause of necessity everyone calls God. 4. More and less are part of diverse things since they approach in diverse ways which is maximal. There is something that is maximally true, maximally good, etc. so it is a maximal being. Things that are maximally true are maximally beings. The maximal in a given genus is a cause of all the things belonging to that genus. Therefore, there is something that is a cause for all beings, their goodness, and each of their perfections. This cause is God. 5. Things lacking cognition, namely, natural bodies, act for the reason of an end. This is clear because they always or very frequently act in the same way in order to bring about what’s best. It is clear that it’s not by chance but a result of a tendency to attain the end. Things lacking cognition lean toward an end if they are directed by something that has cognition and intellective understanding. (An arrow directed by an archer). There is something with intellective understanding by which all natural things are going to end. This thing with an intellective understanding is God.

Question 52

Reply to Aquinas' objection 1

Answer 52

Since God is maximally good, he wouldn’t allow any evil to exist in His works if he were not powerful enough and good enough to draw good from evil. It is part of God’s infinite goodness that He permit evils and elicit goods from them.

Question 53

Reply to Aquinas' objection 2

Answer 53

Since the direction of a higher agent that nature acts for the sake of a determinate end, those things done by nature must be traced back to God as the first cause. It must be traced back to a higher cause and not to human reason and will; because human reason and will are changeable and subject to failure.

Question 54

First Meditation

Answer 54

The senses can be deceiving. It’s impossible to doubt basic beliefs that come from the senses. This is false—when you are sleeping or awake can be deceiving. Physics, astronomy, medicine, and all other sciences dealing with things that have complex structures are doubtful. Arithmetic, geometry, and other studies of the simplest and most general things contain something certain and indubitable.

Question 55

Second Meditation

Answer 55

The fact that nothing is certain remains true. “I think therefore I am” Things grasped are by the mind’s faculty of judgment

Question 56

Third Meditation

Answer 56

Whatever you perceive very vividly and clearly is true. Blind impulse leads one to think there’s things that give ideas or images of themselves through the sense organs Something can’t arise from nothing What’s more perfect contains in itself more reality—can’t arise from what is less perfect The idea of a supremely perfect and infinite being is—God.

Question 57

Rationalists

Answer 57

Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz--> Wolfe--> Kant

Question 58

Empiricists

Answer 58

Locke, Berkeley, D. Hume --> God (crossed out) --> self (crossed out) --> minds (crossed out) --> Causation

Question 59

Occams Razor

Answer 59

The explanation that the fewest entities is the best

Question 60

Kant's transcondental argument

Answer 60

what must be in order for knowledge to exist?

Question 61

Naomenal Realm

Answer 61

The things in themselves Not knowable What kinds of knowledge are possible for us Some think it's Metaphysics- very controversial

Question 62

Phenomenal realm

Answer 62

The things as they appear Knowable Epistenology is primary

Question 63

What kinds of knowledge are possible for u

Answer 63

Wittgemstein says to answer the question you must answer which kinds of things can be meaningfully expressed

Question 64

Trausceudental Argument (Deduction)

Answer 64

Epistemology: What conditions are necessary for any knowledge to be possible Morality: What conditions are necessary for our moral concepts to be possible? Postulates of reason: 1. Free will 2. After life 3. God

Question 65

Two terms of good

Answer 65

1)Good without qualification 2)The Good Will Good will doesn’t mean charity Good will involves best intentions --> intending to conform to the moral law

Question 66

Consequentialism (Kant disagrees with)

Answer 66

The rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the goodness or badness of its consequences

Question 67

Utilitarianism

Answer 67

Psychological Egoism: Humans cannot help themselves, they only do things to help themselves; there’s no morality in the world, people aren’t doing it as a duty for good will, but for their own intentions March 14th, 2018 Maxim: principle the person understands himself or herself to be acting or Example: Whenever the circumstances are X then I will Y Skeptic might ask: Why be moral? Why be so mathematical The golden rule, do unto others as you would have others do onto you Universalize: imagine if everyone did that Imperative Declarative sentence Question Exclamation Hypothetical statement: if ____ then ___ Hypothetical imperative: if you want X, then you must do Y. Imperative--> categorical (ultimate moral principle), -->hypothetical--> problematic, assertoric The categorical Imperative (C.I) The first version of the C.I Duties to self --> perfect imperfect March 16th, 2018 Duties to others -->perfect imperfect March 19th, 2018 The consistent Nazi Maxim: whenever someone is discovered to be Jewish, they should be exterminated Generalized Maxim: whenever someone is discovered to belong to a group that my group disapproves of they should be exterminated

Question 68

Autonomy

Answer 68

You have autonomy if you are able to govern yourself Auto Nomy Self Law Self Governing

Question 69

Ought implies can,

Answer 69

1. If one ought to do X, then one can do X. 2. It is not the case that one can do X. 3. Therefore, it is not the case that one ought to do X. ^Has to do with responsibility and autonomy

Question 70

Doctrine Double Effect

Answer 70

An act (jumping on the hand-grenade) has two effects, one good (save 7 kids) and one bad (Kids die, you live) effect. The rules to make the act a moral one: 1. The good must outweigh the bad 2. The bad must not be the means to achieve the good 3. You must not intend the bad

Question 71

Doctrine of Double Effect

Answer 71

Act--> Effect #1: Good Effect #2: Bad 1. The good outweighs the bad 2. The bad is not the means to good 3. You do not intend the bad (you can foresee)

Question 72

Utilitarianism and who is associated with this term

Answer 72

Utilitarianism: maximize happiness for the greatest number - J.S Mill - J. Benthan

Question 73

Defining lying

Answer 73

a) Stating what you believe to be false | b) Knowingly deceiving someone

Question 74

Kant on the right to tell lies

Answer 74

- Claims that truthfulness in statements that one cannot avoid is a duty to everyone. The duty to speak truthfully, regardless of the harm that is caused to another or to oneself has to be regarded as the basis of all duties based on contract - views the law as having to do with the external actions and not with the internal motivations - Believes that the formulas (3 formulas of categorical importance) are equivalent. There is only one single categorical importance; the different formulas represent the 'same law' and suggests from the moral perspective, we proceed in accordance with the strict method

Question 75

What are the three fields of Philosophy and what is involved in these three fields

Answer 75

Either “empirical” study of our experiences or “pure” analysis of concepts

Question 76

Define Metaphysics

Answer 76

the study of pure concepts as they relate to moral or physical experience

Question 77

What must moral principles be based on?

Answer 77

Concepts of reason, as opposed to particularities of culture or personality

Question 78

General principles about moral duties

Answer 78

1) actions are moral if and only if they are undertaken for the sake of morality alone (without ulterior motive), 2) the moral quality of an action is judged not according to action’s consequences, but according to the motive that produced it, 3) actions are moral only if they are undertaken out of respect for the moral law

Question 79

Can freedom of the will be demonstrated by experience

Answer 79

Never, it is a principle of reason that everything we understand may be explained on the basis of prior conditions

Question 80

Define Categorical imperative

Answer 80

act only in such a way that you could want the maxim (the motivating principle) of your action to become a universal law. A requirement that we must not treat other rational beings as mere means to our own purposes.

Question 81

Define Moral law

Answer 81

must express the principle that actions should be undertaken with pure motives, without consideration of consequences, and out of pure reverence for the law

Question 82

Define Lost Island (Gaunilo)

Answer 82

Definition: The Lost Island is that than which no greater Island can he conceived - Exists in the mind, but not reality - Existence in reality is greater than existence in the understanding alone - It is conceivable that the Lost Island exists in reality - It is conceivable that there is an island greater than the Lost Island - There is an island greater than that Island than which no greater island can be conceived

Question 83

Define death (plato)

Answer 83

The ultimate separation of the soul and body. Regards the body as a prison for the soul and view death as the means of freedom for the soul. Death does not occur when bodily functions cease.

Question 84

Define virtue (Aristotle)

Answer 84

a disposition to behave in the right manner and as a mean between extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices. We learn moral virtue primarily through habit and practice rather than through reasoning and instruction.

Question 85

Define Doctrine of the Mean (Aristotle)

Answer 85

According to the doctrine of the mean, virtue is a mean state between extremes of excess and deficiency. Aristotle describes this mean state as an “intermediate relative to us.” To find the mean relative to us is to find the state of character that “correct reason” requires.

Question 86

Define Soul (Descartes)

Answer 86

Thought that people were composed of a body and soul. Without souls, human beings were essentially robotic entities

Question 87

Define reductive materialism

Answer 87

The view that only the material world (matter) is truly real, and that all processes and realities observed in the universe can be explained by reducing them down to their most basic scientific components.

Question 88

Mediate perception (Berkeley)

Answer 88

We have mediate perception only when we have immediate perception, although the immediate perception need not be temporally prior. Objects of mediate perception are physical existents that are represented by the sense-data or constructed out of sense-data. Immediately perceived is nothing, but the physical objects themselves.