Aggression Flashcards
(27 cards)
Outline the role of the limbic system in aggression
-plays key role in how an organism responds to environmental threats
-hence key factor in whether we respond aggressively or not to external stimuli
-Papez-Maclean’s limbic theory involves structures like the amygdala, hypothalamus and hippocampus
-these are implicated in reactive aggression (response to perceived threat)
-proactive aggression is a response in anticipation of a reward
-limbic system connects to the cingulate gyrus (responsible for focusing attention on emotionally significant events)
-limbic system has connections to the prefrontal cortex (involved in forward planning and anticipation of reward)
Hypothalamus:
-regulates autonomic nervous system
-which regulates responses to emotional circumstances
-hence damage to this area can lead inappropriate aggressive responses to a perceived threat
Amygdala:
-responsible for attaching emotional significance to sensory information
Pre-frontal Cortex:
-where feelings are monitored and interpreted, which then triggers a physical response
-crucial for regulating social behaviour and aggressive responses
-damage would reduce the inhibition of the amygdala resulting in higher levels of aggression
Outline the role of serotonin in aggression
-normally works on the frontal areas of the brain
-inhibits the firing of the amygdala
-hence serotonin has a calming influence
-low levels = people can’t control their impulsive and aggressive behaviour
-also regulates the pre-frontal cortex, so lower levels affect our response to external stimuli
-hence the person becomes aggressive easily
-can’t anticipate risk, hence impulsively engage in aggressive behaviour.
Outline the role of the testosterone in aggression
-observations of non-human and human species have demonstrated that aggression is more evident in males than in females
-animal studies have led to the explanation that male hormones are implicated in aggression
-main hormone which decides whether an embryo develops into a male or female is testosterone. -testosterone peaks in young adolescent males before gradually declining with age
-also promotes muscle strength and is responsible for the sex drive, but is also implicated in aggression.
Evaluate neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression
Strength - research support by Kluver and Bucy (1939)
-removed amygdala, hippocampus and surrounding cortical areas from rhesus monkeys
-they displayed an absence of emotional, motor and vocal reactions normally associated with stimuli or situations eliciting fear and anger
-lesioned monkeys also lost the social understanding of group hierarchies
-would try to fight the more dominant members of the group
-demonstrates importance of limbic system in regulating aggressive responses
-however, significant differences between animal and human physiology
-cannot use animal studies as evidence for aggression
-processes involved in mediating aggression in humans may differ to animals
Strength - recent technological advances have allowed neuroimaging techniques such as MRI scans to investigate relationship between neural structures such as the amygdala and aggressive behaviour
-Wong et al. (1997) undertook MRI scans of 19 violent male criminals in Broadmoor hospital
-compared the size of the amygdala with 20 ‘normal’ control subjects
-found that volume of the amygdala was significantly smaller in the 19 violent criminals
-hence supports role of the amygdala and limbic system in aggression
-however, lacks population validity
-relatively small sample, hence raises issue of whether these findings can be generalised to the wider population
-research can be accused of beta bias, as their research was confined to males
-hence, caution must be taken in using this research to explain aggression in females
Strength - research support for role of serotonin in aggression
-Ferrari et al. (2003) allowed adult male rats to fight with another rat at a specific time for ten days
-on the eleventh day, the rat wasn’t allowed to fight
-researchers found that the rat’s dopamine levels had raised by 65%, and his serotonin levels were reduced by 35%
-despite the fact that the rat was not fighting, the experience had changed the rat’s brain chemistry. -however, this study raises the question of whether lower levels of serotonin cause aggression or whether they are a response to aggression being carried out
-cause and effect relationship cannot be established
-substantially lowers validity of the explanation as to the causes of aggression
Limitation - beta bias is inherent in neural explanations of aggression
-Mann et al. (1990) administered the drug dexfenfluramine (which depletes serotonin in the brain) to 35 healthy adults
-researchers then used a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels
-increased following administration of dexfenfluramine amongst males, but interestingly not amongst females
-shows that males and females may not be subject to the same physiological factors when explaining aggression
Strength - research support for role of testosterone
-Wagner (1979) castrated mice and aggression levels went down
-supports theory that testosterone is implicated in aggression
-however, only provides correlational support for the cause of aggression, as the research only demonstrates a relationship between lowered testosterone and lowered aggression
Outline genetic factors in aggression:
- Chromosomal abnormalities
- Animal studies
- Twin studies
- MAOA gene
Chromosomal Abnormalities (XYY Syndrome)
-early biological theories of aggression focused on genetic anomalies, especially in males
-males with an XYY genotype were thought to be predisposed to aggression
-labelled as ‘super males’
-Court-Brown (1965) studied 314 patients with XYY
-found increased aggression
-suggested they be institutionalised for public safety
-limitation: later studies showed not all XYY individuals are aggressive
-may be due to social stigma, low IQ, or environment, not genes alone
Animal Studies
-psychologists used selective breeding to explore genetic transmission of aggression in animals
-aggression was consistently passed on when aggressive animals were bred together
-suggests it has a heritable component
-but cannot generalise to humans
-have complex cognitive and social factors influencing behaviour
Twin Studies (MZ vs DZ Twins)
-if aggression is genetic, concordance rates should be higher in MZ twins
-research support by Coccaro et al. (1997)
-found 50% concordance for MZ twins, 19% for DZ in aggressive behaviour
-suggests a genetic basis
-however, not 100% concordance → environment also plays a role
MAOA Gene (‘Warrior Gene’)
-codes for monoamine oxidase A, an enzyme that breaks down serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline
-defective MAOA gene (low-activity variant) → reduced breakdown → increased levels of these neurotransmitters
-links with violent and aggressive behaviour in certain populations
-Brunner et al. (1993) studied a Dutch family
-many males showed violent, impulsive behaviour (e.g. rape, arson)
-found a shared defective MAOA gene
-clear genetic link to aggression
High dopamine levels = more likely to feel reward when aggression is carried out
Low serotonin levels = lack of inhibition over impulsive behaviour
High noradrenaline levels = overreaction to perceived threats = increasing likelihood of impulsive aggression
Evaluate genetic factors in aggression
Limitation - contradictory research
-Theilgaard (1984) undertook research into men with the XYY genotype
-found that XYY can cause an increase in height in individuals but not an increase in aggression
Strength - research support
-Coccaro et al. (1997) compared concordance of criminal behaviour for MZ and DZ twins
-MZ twins had a 50% concordance whereas DZ twins were only 19%
-supports role of genetics in aggression as genetically identical twins were more likely to display criminal behaviour than DZ twins
Strength - research support for role of genetic factors in aggression
-scientists such as Godar et al. (2014) have refined selective breeding by removing certain genes in mice
-e.g. MAOA gene
-the MAOA knockout mice showed increased aggression and also higher levels of serotonin
-demonstrates relationship between genes and neurotransmitters
-when the mice were given fluoxetine to raise their serotonin levels, their behaviour returned to normal
-Brunner (1993) undertook a famous study on the males in a large family from the Netherlands
-family members displayed high levels of aggression
-five of the males had the dysfunctional allele of the MAOA gene
-females in the family were unaffected by the genetic dysfunction
-MAOA gene is carried on the X chromosome
-as females have two X chromosome, even if they possess the dysfunctional MAOA gene, their corresponding X chromosome is likely to have a functional MAOA gene, which has been found to be dominant
-female genotype presentation has the effect of preventing the issue of the flawed monoamine metabolism
Strength - research support
-Stuart et al. (2014) studied 97 men who had been involved in severe domestic abuse to their partners
-found the most violent men had the faulty MAOA gene
-these men engaged in the highest level of physical and psychological aggression
-inflicted the worst injuries on their partners
Outline the ethological explanation of aggression, including innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns
-ethological explanation seeks to understand innate behaviour of animals (including humans)
-done by studying them in their natural environment
-tries to account for behaviour in terms of its adaptive value to the specific species
-ethologists believe that studying animal behaviour can help understand human behaviour
-ethologists believe aggression provides an adaptive function
-seen in all animal species and believed to be innate
-evolutionary psychologists propose that innate behaviour must be beneficial to the organism
-can help survival, e.g. protect resources such as land and food
-can establish dominance hierarchies to control access to resources, e.g. females
-Lorenz (1966) proposed that aggression in animals is often ritualistic
-he argued it is more adaptive than direct aggression, as symbolic aggression would help ensure the organism was not harmed
-if the organism sustained an injury as part of aggression this could impair their ability to reproduce or even result in death
-hence, ritualistic aggression may scare off an opponent without causing physical harm
-e.g. teeth baring
Innate releasing mechanisms/fixed action patterns:
-animals have a built-in neural structure called the Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM)
-when exposed to specific stimuli, e.g. facial expressions, it causes the release of an automatic behavioural response
-the consequential aggressive behavioural sequence = the Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)
-e.g. when a dog sees a cat running away from them, they have an instinctive response to chase the cat
-when the cat is still, the IRM is not activated
-when the cat runs the IRM is activated
-the chasing behaviour of the dog is an example of a fixed action pattern
-the desire to chase is automatic and instinctive, triggered by the cat running away from it
Evaluate ethological explanations of human aggression
Strength - research support
-Slackett (1966) isolated infant monkeys from mothers to avoid learnt behaviours
-showed the monkeys photographs of monkeys displaying threatening or non-threatening poses
-monkeys only displayed defensive poses to the threatening photos
-suggests monkeys are born with an innate set of behaviours (FAP)
-triggered when shown aggression
Strength - animal studies can separate biological and socio-cultural processes
-gives insight into biological origin of aggression
-but cannot generalise to humans
-as human aggression is sometimes instinctual (e.g. fight or flight)
-but mostly premeditated and highly organised (e.g. warfare)
Strength - research support
-Tinbergen (1951) observed male sticklebacks (very territorial and aggressive species of fish)
-develop a red spot on their underside during mating season
-found male sticklebacks will attack others that enters their territory
-suggested that the red spot on their underside was acting as an IRM
-when one stickleback observed another stickleback with this red spot they would initiate the aggressive attack behaviour
-hence FAP triggered
-tested this by presenting male sticklebacks with a wooden model
-if the wooden model had a red spot, then the male stickleback would attack
-however, without the red spot the male stickleback would not display aggression
Limitation - ethological explanation does not account for cultural differences
-assumes that behaviour is innate
-hence, it should be uniform across all cultures
-however, Nisbett (1996) conducted a laboratory experiment
-found South American white males were more likely to respond aggressively when insulted than North American white males under the same conditions
-demonstrates a high variation in aggressive responses due to cultural differences
Limitation - evidence from the animal kingdom that aggression is not always ritualistic
-Goodall (2010) studied chimpanzee behaviour for over fifty years
-observed neighbouring groups of chimpanzees in brutal war with each other
-slaughtering all members of the group
-she referred to this type of gang behaviour as the systematic slaughtering of one group by another stronger group
-hard to explain this aggression from an ethological standpoint as risk of injury to the attacking group is high
-hence does not appear to be an adaptive behaviour
Limitation - contradictory research shows not all fixed action patterns are fixed
-evidence shows learning and environmental factors can create variation within a species
-hence may be more appropriate to discuss modal action patterns rather than fixed action patterns
-modal action patterns are behaviours that are instinctual and differ from one individual within the species compared to others
-e.g. the desire to chase in dogs (the prey drive)
-some dogs chase cats but others do not
-differences in behaviour may be due to training, or species differentiation as a result of selective breeding of characteristics
Outline evolutionary explanations of human aggression
-evolutionary explanation examines how behaviours that were adaptive to our human ancestors are passed down through genetic transmission from one generation to the next
-behaviours witnessed today would have evolved as a reaction to the environment 10,000 to 5 million years ago
-this time frame and environment is known as the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness (EEA)
-aggression in this time would have helped an individual survive, as helps to secure resources, food, territory and women
-adaptive behaviours allowed our ancestors to survive and be more likely to reproduce and have more offspring (natural selection)
-in addition, the evolutionary explanation proposes that certain behaviours which confer an increased likelihood to survive will be sexually selected for by prospective mates
-human males would be more likely to survive if they displayed aggression as a way of protecting their mates
-this behaviour would then be sexually selected for by potential females
-aggression is also a behaviour which allowed our ancestors to establish hierarchical dominance within a group
-this dominance would result in higher status in the social group, leading to greater access to resources in general and to mates in particular
-evolutionary explanation also proposes that it would have been adaptive for human males to display aggression as a way of deterring other males from trying to steal their females
-females were a resource which allows transmission of genes to offspring
-sexual jealousy is more likely in males as males cannot ever be sure of paternity, whereas women can always be sure they are the child’s mother
-the fear that a male may be investing their resources in another male’s offspring is called cuckoldry
-evolutionary psychologists propose that aggressive sexual jealousy would be a way of avoiding cuckoldry, and would therefore provide an adaptive function
-Daly and Wilson (1966) have proposed that men have evolved mate-retention strategies to deter their mate from leaving or cheating because without a mate, the chance of passing on genes is reduced
-Two such aggressive strategies are:
1. Aggressive direct guarding – restricting her freedom to prevent males gaining access. e.g. stopping partners speaking and interacting with other men.
2. Intersexual negative inducements – issuing threats of physical violence to the female if they were interested in other males.
Evaluate evolutionary explanations of human aggression
-Shackleford et al. (2005) conducted a study where 107 married couples with an age range of 17-41 years-of-age were asked to fill in a questionnaire to assess their mate retention behaviours
-Behaviours such as direct guarding, e.g. monopolising their partner’s time and intersexual negative inducements such as threatening to punish their partner’s infidelity were measured
-extent of male retention strategies employed by the men was significantly correlated with the extent of male directed violence towards their partners
-self-report responses of both the males and females were also found to have a significant correlation ensuring the reliability of the questionnaire
-supports the evolutionary explanation that aggressive male mate retention strategies are used to deter females from committing infidelity
-however, Shackleford’s research is purely correlational
-cannot tell if the violent aggression was a result of the male mate retention strategies and not down to another third variable
-also uncertain whether the male mate retention strategies are an evolved behaviour and therefore innate
-behaviours demonstrated may have been a learnt behaviour rather than a biological response
-domestic violence has become far less socially acceptable than a hundred years ago
-this demonstrates the effect of culture and learning on aggression
-Individuals demonstrating aggressive mate retention strategies may have observed this behaviour from significant others in their lives and thus social learning could be a valid explanation for their behaviour
-difficult to separate the effects of nature from the effects of nurture when examining aggression and mating behaviour
Limitation - possible social desirability bias
-Shackleford’s research was based on self-report measures
-in many cultures it is socially desirable for a male to display aggressive behaviours
-Furthermore, Shackleford himself points out that self-report techniques suffer from issues of validity due to decay of memory over time.
-Dobash & Dobash (2000) carried out case studies of 95 women who had suffered violent abuse from their partners
-As part of the case studies they used structured and unstructured interviews, gathering both quantitative and qualitative data
-main source of conflict leading to violent attacks was reported to lie with the men’s possessiveness and jealousy
-an understanding of male mate retention strategies, however, does have practical applications, as the use of these strategies can alert friends and family to the potential for future violence
-relationship counselling can then be sought to intervene before the conflict escalates to physical violence.
Limitation - evolutionary explanations can be accused of being ‘post hoc’
-offered thousands of years after the adaptive behaviour occurred
-human evolution has taken over 10,000 years
-hence cannot directly observe if this aggressive sexual jealousy is actually adaptive
-fossil evidence lacks insight into ancestral thoughts
-furthermore, the evolutionary explanation is unfalsifiable, as it lacks empirical research methods
-not compatible with aims of science
-e.g. the idea that aggression evolved to prevent cuckoldry cannot be falsified as it is a post hoc explanation
Outline the frustration-aggression hypothesis as an explanation of human aggression
-put forward by Dollard et al. (1939)
-based on the psychodynamic explanation of catharsis
-Freud believed the drive for aggression was innate, like the drive for food
-thought the only way to reduce aggression is to engage in an activity which released it
-Dollard et al. (1939) proposed that if we experience frustration, this leads to aggression
-aggression is a cathartic release of the build-up of frustration
-if the individual is prevented from achieving a goal by some external factor, then this will lead to frustration which will always lead to aggression
-aggression cannot always be directed at the source of aggression, which may be abstract such as lack of money, or too powerful, as the risk of punishment is too high
-psychodynamic theory proposes we have ego defence mechanisms to protect ourselves
-two defence mechanisms that are used in the catharsis of aggression are:
1. Sublimation – Using aggression in acceptable activities such as sport.
2. Displacement – Directing our aggression outwards onto something or someone else
-Berkowitz (1969) proposed a revised frustration-aggression hypothesis, where he argued that frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression
-stated that aggression would only occur in the presence of certain cues
-e.g. cues such as the presence of weapons will be more likely to trigger aggression
Evaluate the frustration-aggression hypothesis as an explanation of human aggression
Strength - research support
-Russell Green (1968) conducted a laboratory experiment where he asked male undergraduate students to undertake a jigsaw puzzle
-while they were completing the jigsaw puzzle he organised three different conditions that were designed to raise levels of frustration in the participants
-one condition imposed an unattainable time limit to complete the jigsaw
-in another condition the jigsaw was impossible to complete
-in a third condition a confederate issued derogatory remarks to the students as they failed to complete the study
-In the second part of the study participants had the opportunity to give shocks to the confederate if he answered incorrectly on another task
-the group of participants who had experienced insults from the confederate gave the highest levels of shocks. All three groups gave more shocks than a control group who had not experienced any frustration conditions. This experiment supports the theory that frustration leads to aggression.
Strength - research support
-Berkowitz (1967) carried out a laboratory experiment where participants where again given the opportunity to shock a confederate who had previously angered them
-However, Berkowitz set up three different conditions:
-one with an aggressive cue, a gun
-one with a non-aggressive cue, a badminton racket
-one with no cue at all
-Berkowitz found those participants who were in the presence of the aggressive cue gave higher levels of shocks than the other two groups
-furthermore, this research has useful practical applications
-e.g. shed new light on the gun control debate in America
-if the presence of guns is more likely to result in aggression, then this ‘weapons effect’ could have far reaching implications for gun laws
Limitation - questionable ecological validity
-research support has mainly come from laboratory experiments
-whether the participants in laboratory experiments would carry out actual aggression when faced with an external stimulus that incited aggression is not certain
-hence findings cannot be generalised to real life situations
Outline the social learning theory as an explanation of human aggression
-aggression can be directly learned through operant conditioning, involving positive and negative reinforcement and punishment
-Bandura proposed that aggression can also be learnt by the indirect mechanism of observational learning
-social learning theory maintains that children learn through a process of imitation
-aggressive acts carried out by a role model will be internalised by an individual and reproduced in the future
-if the role model’s behaviour is seen to be rewarded, then a child can learn that this is an effective way of getting what they want
-through this process of vicarious reinforcement, rewards that are witnessed as a result of aggression result in the behaviour being seen as acceptable and then reproduced
-Bandura proposes that there are five main cognitive factors that mediate control of the aggressive behaviour:
Attention – A person/child must attend to the aggressor. So a child must pay attention to an act of aggression carried out by a role model; for instance, when a child engages in a computer game or watches a violent film they are attending to the aggression.
Retention – To model the behaviour, it needs to be placed into LTM, which enables the behaviour to be retrieved. A child needs to remember the aggression that they have witnessed.
Production – The individual needs to be able to reproduce the behaviour, i.e. have the physical capabilities. So for instance aggression displayed by superheroes is less likely to be imitated if the child does not possess the physical capabilities to actually carry out the behaviour.
Motivation – An individual must be expecting to receive positive reinforcement for the modelled behaviour. A child must expect they will get some kind of reward from carrying out aggression This doesn’t have to be materialistic but could be linked to gaining higher status in the eyes of their peers.
Self-efficacy – Individuals must believe that their behaviour will attain a goal; they must have confidence in their own ability to carry out the action and that they will be rewarded for that action. Self-efficacy relates to the factor of self-belief in one’s actions. If a child decides aggression will be an appropriate action, they must be confident that they can carry out the behaviour and that it will end up in a positive outcome.
-Bandura believed aggressive reinforcement in the form of imitation of family members was the most prominent source of behaviour modelling
-parents are the primary role models for children
-through a process of observation and identification their behaviour is modelled
-e.g. boy who watches his father attack his mother is more likely to become an abusive parent and husband
-in addition to the role models within the family, Bandura proposed that role models in the media can provide a source of vicarious reinforcement
-can lead to aggressive behaviour being replicated
-Bandura proposed that these role models can provide a child with a ‘script’ to guide their behaviour
Evaluate the social learning theory as an explanation of human aggression
Strength - several studies support the role of social learning in aggressive behaviour
-One study (1963) was conducted with three experimental conditions
-in one condition there was a filmed aggressive role model
-in another there was an aggressive role model that was a cartoon character
-in the third condition there was a real aggressive role model
-Bandura also presented a control condition with no aggressive role model
-Bandura undertook a matched pairs design where 96 children aged 3-5 were matched for baseline aggression levels
-children were then allowed to play with a toy called a Bobo doll
-and then their aggressive actions were counted
-The results demonstrated that the cartoon model produced the highest mean number of aggressive acts
-Bandura concluded that the viewing of aggression was not cathartic, but led to the modelling of the aggressive behaviour
-hence supports the social psychological explanation of the social learning of aggression.
(Check booklet for statistics)
Limitation - possible cultural bias in social learning theory
-Christianson (2006) studied the Kung San people of the Kalahari Desert
-found aggressive behaviour was very rare in this society
-Kung San parents do not use physical punishment
-there is no value placed on aggressive behaviour
-hence there are no cultural norms for aggression and children do not display aggressive behaviour
-shows the case for social learning being complex
-questions whether social learning theory in relation to aggression may only be applied to western cultures
Limitation - social learning theory can only explain some forms of aggression
-e.g. reactive aggression is harder to explain with social learning theory
-when aggression is carried out as a reaction to an external stimulus such as jealousy, pain or loneliness, this may be better explained by the frustration-aggression hypothesis rather than as a result of observational learning as proposed by social learning theory
Outline deindividuation as an explanation of aggression
-not all aggression is interpersonal, i.e. carried out from one individual to another
-some aggression is carried out in groups and is impersonal
-violence and aggression has been found to be more likely to occur when people are immersed in a crowd
-process of being part of a crowd can cause deindividuation
-Festinger (1952) coined the term ‘deindividuation’ suggesting there is a reduction of inner restraints of self-awareness where individuals are ‘submerged in a group’
-Deindividuation has been used to explain violence in prisons, and also at sporting events where large numbers of people are in close proximity to each other
-in western society we have strong norms against violence and aggression
-our identity is based on our compliance with social norms
-under normal circumstances an awareness of social norms prevents behaviour that is aggressive and deviant individuals in public places generally carry out continual self-assessment of their behaviour to ensure compliance with social norms
-however, when an individual becomes part of a crowd they become anonymous and lose their individualised sense of identity, hence loosening their normal inhibitions
-process of continual self-assessment is weakened as awareness of their individual identity is weakened. Individuals in groups do not see the consequences of any aggression and social norms that are normally followed are forgotten.
Evaluate deindividuation as an explanation of aggression
-Dodd (1985) developed a technique to demonstrate deindividuation
-asked 229 undergraduate psychology students: ‘if you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?’
-three independent raters rated the students’ responses into those that were antisocial or not
-results found that 36% of the responses were antisocial and 26% were criminal (types of responses referring to acts such as ‘robbing a bank’)
-demonstrates the connection between deindividuation as a result of anonymity, and subsequent aggression
-Diener (1976) conducted a natural experiment examining the effects of deindividuation on aggression
-on the night of Halloween concealed raters observed 1300 child trick or treaters under different conditions
-one condition of anonymity, one of non-anonymity, and then conditions of being alone or in a group
-the children were given the opportunity to steal sweets and money
-those children who were in a group and anonymous were the group who stole the most at 57%, compared to 21% in the group that were identifiable
-demonstrates that when anonymous and in a group, children are more likely to behave in a socially deviant way
-hence supports deindividuation theory as a social psychological theory of aggression
-Malmouth and Check (1981) conducted a piece of research in North America
-they posed the question: ‘Would you rape if you could not be caught?’
-35% of the university students said yes, supporting the theory that deindividuation can increase aggressive behaviour.
-Johnson & Downing (1979) conducted a laboratory experiment with three conditions
-In the first, female participants were dressed in a Ku Klux Klan-type outfit which masked their faces entirely
-in the second condition they were dressed as nurses
-in the third they wore their normal clothes
-The participants then had to give (fake) electric shocks to a confederate
-The participants in the Ku-Klux Klan-type outfits gave much higher levels of shocks to the confederate than the other groups
-demonstrates that when individuals are disguised and their identity is hidden, even if they aren’t part of a group they may be still more likely to undertake aggressive acts
-however, very difficult to separate the effects of deindividuation from other explanations of aggression such as social learning
-some sporting events such as football which attracts huge crowds have had a long history of violence and aggression on the pitch and from the fans
-Yet sports such as rugby and cricket also attract huge crowds yet have not experienced the problems with anti-social behaviour that football fans have witnessed
-may suggest that rather than deindividuation being responsible for aggressive crowd behaviour, it may be better explained by cultural factors internalised through the process of social learning
Outline the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression in the context of prisons
-psychologists mainly study prisons where violence has been a historic problem
Importation Model:
-Irwin and Cressey (1962)
-argue that aggression is not due to the situational pressures of the institution
-but rather the individual’s personality and background
-individuals import their characteristics and traits into the prison
-if an individual comes from a subculture where violence is the norm, then they will continue to be violent in the prison, often to settle disputes
-useful model as it can explain the higher levels of aggression demonstrated by those with certain personal characteristics, e.g. gender, race and social class
-dispositional explanation proposes that these individuals would be more aggressive in any setting
-often the younger inmates behave violently, as they are more likely to find it harder to adjust to prison life
-hence engage in more conflicts with others
-they’re also more likely to view aggression as an appropriate way of dealing with conflict
Evaluate the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression in the context of prisons
Strength - research support for dispositional explanation
-Adams (1981) found that in American prisons, black inmates were more likely to be associated with violent acts in comparison to white inmates
-argued that black prisoners tended to come from poorer backgrounds with higher rates of crime
-hence imported their cultural norms into the prison
-supports Importation Model
-however, this may reflect societal bias rather than dispositional aggression
Strength - research support for role of ethnicity in institutional aggression
-Gaes et al. (1988) studied 82,000 prisoners in US prisons
-found prisoners with Hispanic origins were more violent than those with a non-Hispanic origin
-also prisoners with Asian origins were less likely to be violent than those who were non- Asian
-supports the view that culture contributes to importation of aggression into institutions
Limitation - research contradicts dispositional explanation
-DeLisi (2004) studied 813 male inmates in US prisons
-importation model says aggression comes from individual backgrounds
-gang members should be more aggressive, according to the importation model
-found no correlation between prison violence and previous gang membership
-furthermore, research mostly focuses on violence among male prison populations
-little info about causes of female prison violence
-androcentric to assume males and females are violent for same reasons
-female prison aggression may involve different psychological or social factors
-suggests beta bias as ignores gender-based differences in violence
-males may import aggression, but effects differ across gender and context
Outline the situational explanation of institutional aggression in the context of prisons.
-social psychologists believe that crowded conditions can increase aggression
-prisons intend to be stressful environments as a form of punishment
-Sykes (1958) proposes that aggression is due to various environmental deprivations
Deprivation of liberty:
-prisoners must remain in the prison environment with no freedom at all
-often have to obtain permission to eat/sleep, shower, etc. (Blomberg & Lucken, 2000).
Deprivation of autonomy:
-prisoners have no power and very few choices
-leads to a feeling of helplessness among inmates
-increases frustration and aggression
Deprivation of goods:
-in prison access to personal belongings are restricted or denied entirely
-brings about a frustrated sense of failure to most prisoners, leading to aggression (Sykes, 1958)
Deprivation of heterosexual relationships:
-men may feel emasculated from the loss of heterosexual relationships
-furthermore, increased opportunity for homosexual behaviour in prison may lead to anxieties for prisoners
Deprivation of security:
-prisoners may live in fear of aggression from other inmates
-leads to a heightened sense of physical threat
-feeling of perceived continual threat can lead to aggressive response as a form of defence
Evaluate the situational explanation of institutional aggression in the context of prisons
Strength - research support for the effects of situational factors
-Gaes et al. (1985) found that overcrowding in prisons can cause violence
-also causes ill health and general misconduct
-suggests that overcrowding can increase stress
-hence results in an overreaction to other factors in the institution
Strength - useful practical applications
-in 2005, Wilson set up two units in HMP Woodhill where the overcrowding was reduced
-music was introduced to reduce noisy conditions
-the temperature was carefully controlled
-found that initiating these conditions was a successful way to lower levels of aggression
Limitation - contradictory research
-Camp & Gaes (2005) undertook a field experiment
-randomly allocated 561 male inmates to two prisons with low security and high security
-inmates had been matched on criminal history and predisposition to aggression
-found that the individuals were just as likely to behave aggressively in the low security prison (33%) as in the high security prison (36%)
-demonstrates that prison aggression is due to the individual rather than the situation
Limitation - contradictory research
-McCorkle et al. (1995) investigated aggression in 371 state prisons in the US
-found little evidence to support the link between violence and overcrowding
-highlighted that most prisoners are stressed, but not all individuals resort to aggression
-hence, the assumption that stress and frustration always leads to aggression is a flawed presumption
Outline media influences, including the effects of computer games, using desensitisation as an explanation
Desensitisation theory
-proposes that repeated exposure to a stimulus, e.g. aggression, reduces our emotional and physiological responses
-normally, witnessing violence/aggession activates the sympathetic nervous system to initiate the fight or flight response
-heart rate increases and adrenaline is released
-this physiological stress response causes a desire to remove ourselves from the object
-desensitisation helped our ancestors to adapt to environmental stimuli that were frequently encountered
-e.g. tribes have become tree dwellers for their own safety
-no longer fear heights due to desensitisation
Application to media influences:
-in today’s media saturated world, violence and aggression are often present in news, video games and films
-psychologists propose that desensitisation to violence in computer games can have a negative effect
-individuals may not respond to real aggression with any physiological arousal, e.g. fear
-hence more likely to accept violence and respond aggressively when presented with the opportunity to do so
Outline media influences, including the effects of computer games, using disinhibition as an explanation
Disinhibition theory:
-proposes that exposure to media violence weakens internal restraints against aggression
-behavioural norm of non-aggression shifts to acceptance of aggression
-starts being normalised viewed as a justified response, particularly in revenge scenarios
-media depictions of revenge-based violence (e.g. a hero punishing a villain) have a stronger disinhibitory effect
-increases the likelihood of imitation
Role of Social Learning and Media Influence
-most people learn through social learning that aggression is harmful and antisocial
-Bandura (1977) proposed that children learn behaviour by observing role models, e.g. parents
-however, as they grow, the media becomes an increasingly powerful role model
-superheroes or action figures like James Bond model aggression as heroic, especially in the name of justice
-when such aggression is rewarded or lacks consequences (as in films or violent video games), disinhibition strengthens
-games that reward violent acts reinforce aggression as acceptable and effective
-further alters social norms around behaviour
Outline media influences, including the effects of computer games, using cognitive priming as an explanation
Huston et al. (1992)
-children as young as 10 may have been exposed to 8,000 murders and up to 100,000 other acts of violence on television alone
Cognitive priming
-media aggression provides individuals with ‘scripts’ for how to respond to perceived aggression
-these scripts are stored in memory and can be automatically triggered (primed) by environmental cues
-cognitive priming activates previously learned aggressive behaviours or thoughts
-makes aggressive responses more likely in similar real-life situations
-violent video games reward aggression, reinforcing aggressive schema in players, especially those with prior exposure to violence
-a child that is rewarded for aggression in computer games may later apply that same script in real-life, expecting to “win” through aggression
-from an early age, children develop a range of violent scripts to guide their behaviour
-selected unconsciously based on situational cues
-therefore, automatic priming can lead to unintentional violence
-aggression becomes a default behavioural response
Evaluate media influences, including the effects of computer games
Strength - research supports desensitisation
-Weisz & Earls (1995) showed students films with varying aggression levels
-included sexual aggression (Straw Dogs), physical (Die Hard 2), neutral (Days of Thunder)
-then completed questionnaires on violence, empathy, and rape trial judgments
-males exposed to sexual aggression accepted violence and rape myths more
-showed less sympathy for the rape victim in re-enactment
-also less likely to judge defendant guilty
-supports desensitisation theory
-suggests media violence can dull emotional responses and increase tolerance of aggression
-however, lacks ecological validity
-conducted in artificial lab setting
-limits real-world application
-aggression measured via self-report or towards confederates, not real behaviour
-Berkowitz and Alioto (1973) carried out a laboratory experiment where participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance (revenge) gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate
-Berkowitz and Alioto (1973) propose that aggression is more likely to occur if the viewed aggression is seen as an acceptable response and disinhibition is more likely to occur
Strength - practical application of our understanding of the processes of disinhibition
-led to the American Army using games as a recruiting tool
-from the perspective of the armed forces, recruiting individuals with an interest in violence and aggression and a disinhibited response to it is beneficial for future soldiers
-like to behave aggressively during war, so it is more beneficial for them to respond aggressively as the norm
-if they didn’t automatically and quickly respond aggressively in a threat situation, this could have potential issues for their own survival and those of the people they are trying to protect
Strength - research support for cognitive priming as an explanation for media influence on aggression
Fischer & Greitemeyer (2006) studied effects of aggressive song lyrics
-males heard misogynistic or neutral lyrics, then gave chilli sauce to confederates
-those exposed to aggressive lyrics gave more sauce to female confederates
-also recalled more negative traits about women after misogynistic lyrics
-reported higher aggression levels towards women
-replicated with females using anti-male lyrics
-similar aggressive responses
-shows aggressive media primes gendered aggression in memory and behaviour
