Memory Flashcards
(34 cards)
Evaluate the key features of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) MSM, including the 3 components in relation to coding, capacity and duration
The model suggests that memories form sequentially and information is passed from one component to the next in a linear fashion
Sensory register:
-has an unknown but supposedly unlimited capacity
-very limited duration of about 250 milliseconds (less than one second)
-as information enters from all 5 senses, the coding is modality specific and said to be raw/unprocessed information
STM:
-information that is attended to is passed into the STM
-has a limited capacity of 7+/-2 chunks of information
-limited duration of about 20 seconds
-coded in an acoustic format (i.e. can be remembered by repeating it to yourself over and over)
LTM:
-rehearsed information is transferred to the LTM from the STM
-unlimited capacity
-lifetime’s duration
-coded semantically (by meaning) and can be retrieved from the LTM to the STM at any time
Outline and evaluate Miller (1956) research
Miller (1956) proposed the “Magic Number 7” - plus or minus two
-believed the average memory span is between 5 and 9 items
mechanism of chunking = small individual chunks are put together to make a meaningful unit that can be remembered later
-participants were asked to memorise a string of numbers
-each time increased by one digit
AO3:
Limitation - low ecological validity
-Cowan argues that participant may employ “processing strategies”
-these do not reflect real-life examples of using STM on a day to day basis
Limitation - Miller did not specify how large each ‘chunk’ of information could be
-hence we are unable to conclude the exact capacity of STM
-further research is required to determine the size of ‘chunks’
-furthermore, his research into STM ignored other factors that affect capacity
-e.g. age may affect STM
-Jacobs (1887) research acknowledged that STM gradually improved with age
Limitation - recent research has suggested that Miller may have over-exaggerated the capacity of STM
-Cowan (2000) reviewed other research and found capacity is more similar to 4 chunks as opposed to the original 5-9 limit
-may reflect the outdated methodologies adopted by Miller and the lack of control over confounding variables
furthermore, Vogel et al. confirmed that the limit is 4 chunks
Outline and evaluate Jacobs (1887)
-experiment using a digit span test
-examined capacity of short-term memory for numbers and letters
-sample of 443 female students (aged from 8-19) from the North London Collegiate School
-participants had to repeat back a string of numbers or letters in the same order
-the number of digits/letters was gradually increased, until the participants could no longer recall the sequence
-found that the average span was 7.3 letters and 9.3 words, which supports Miller’s notion of 7+/-2
Limitation - may lack standardisation and appreciation of scientific methods
-e.g. the current laboratory experiment methodology produces highly reliable and valid data
-controls and removes the effects of extraneous and confounding variables
-unlikely for Jacobs, as confounding variables such as a noisy room or difficult word lists, may have had a greater influence on accuracy of recall
-leads to unreliable results.
Define coding, capacity and duration in relation to memory
Coding refers to the way in which information is changed and stored in the memory
Capacity refers to how much information can be stored
Duration refers to the length of time that information can be stored in the memory
Explain and evaluate Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) investigation on the duration of STM
Aim: To investigate how different short intervals containing an interference task affect the recall of terms presented verbally, and to infer the duration of the STM
Method:
-24 male and female university psychology students participated
-48 three-consonant nonsense syllables (trigrams) were spelled out verbally, letter by letter
-the researcher spelled the syllable out and then immediately called out a 3-digit number
the participants had to count down backwards in groups of 3s from that number, which prevented repetition of the trigram
the participants had to recall the trigram first at 3 seconds, and then at 18 seconds
Results:
-the longer the interval, the less accurate the recall
-at 3 seconds, 80% of the trigrams were recalled correctly
-at 18 seconds, only 10% of the trigrams were recalled correctly
-STM has a limited duration of about 18 seconds
-if we are unable to rehearse information, it will not be passed onto the LTM, which supports the idea of discrete components and the MSM of memory as a whole
Evaluation:
Limitation - possible demand characteristics
-sample of 24 psychology students
-may have encountered the MSM of memory before
-changed behaviour isn’t true representation
-psychology students are also more likely to have improved memory
-may have studied memory strategies
-hence becomes difficult to generalise the results to non-psychology students who may not have encountered memory improvement strategies before
Limitation - low levels of ecological validity
-people are usually not required to recall trigrams as part of their daily lives
-hence, it is not representative of everyay examples of what the STM stores
-unable to conclude whether the duration of the STM would be longer for more common and more important details, such as phone numbers
Strength - lab experiment
-high degree of control for extraneous variables
-makes the procedure easy to replicate to test reliability
-MSM is reductionist
-suggests memory is due to basic functions like rehearsal and paying attention, and stores are either short term or long term
-furthermore, nomothetic approach
Explain and evaluate Bahrick (1975) duration of LTM investigation
Aim: to investigate the duration of the LTM
Method:
-392 American university graduates were shown pictures of their high school yearbook
-they had to select a name from a list that matched the picture they were shown
Results:
-90% of the participants were able to match the right names to the photographs 14 years after graduation
-60% of the participants were able to match photographs to the right name 47 years after graduating
Conclusion:
-people could remember certain types of information such as names and faces, for almost a lifetime
-this supports the MSM and the idea that our LTM has a lifetime’s duration (at least 47 years), and is semantically coded
Evaluation points:
-sample = 392 american university graduates
-lacks population validity
-psychologists cannot generalise results to other populations (e.g. university graduates from the UK or Europe)
-impossible to conclude whether other populations would demonstrate the same ability to recall information after 47 years
-unable to explain whether the LTM becomes less accurate over time due to a limited duration, or if it gets worse with old age
-cannot conclude that the LTM has an unlimited duration (like the MSM suggests), as it is affected by other factors
-high levels of ecological validity, as the study used real-life memories
Outline the different types of LTM
Episodic memory:
-explicit memory
-memories of personal experiences (e.g. first day of school)
-3 specific elements are interwoven into one memory: details of the event, context, and emotions
-strength of episodic memories is determined by the strength of the emotions felt at the time of encoding
-a conscious effort is required to retrieve them
-associated with the hippocampus, but other brain regions are associated with encoding (prefrontal cortex, etc)
Semantic memory:
-explicit memory
-memory for knowledge, facts, concepts and the meaning of the world around us
-strength of semantic memories are determined by the emotions felt when coded, but is less personal and can often be quite abstract compared to episodic memories
-often start off as episodic memories, as knowledge is acquired from personal experiences, but they are not closely associated with a particular event
-semantic memories are generally stronger than episodic
-associated with the temporal lobe
Procedural memory:
-implicit memory
-memory of how to perform certain tasks, actions or skills (e.g. swimming and riding a bike)
-acquired through repetition and practice
-associated with the cerebellum and motor complex
-generally formed early in life, which allow us to focus our direct attention to everyday tasks
Explain what is meant by implicit and explicit memory
Implicit (non-declarative) = long term memories are skilled behaviours , which are largely unconscious.
Explicit (declarative) = memories are knowledge for events and facts
Evaluate the different types of LTM
Strength - research support from brain scans:
-shows that different parts of the brain are active when accessing procedural, semantic and episodic memory
-supports idea that LTM has at least 3 different categories
strength - research support for the distinction between implicit and explicit memory
-Milner (1962) examined Patient HM
-underwent hippocampus removal to alleviate symptoms of his severe epilepsy
-Milner discovered that HM’s STM remained intact but had issues transferring some information to his LTM
-his implicit memory was unaffected as he was able to learn a mirror-tracing task, and retained that skill without forgetting
-however, he had no memory of completing the task
-suggests inability to recall the experience explicitly
Limitation - case studies are difficult to draw conclusions from
-difficult to establish exactly which area is affected
-hence both HM and PM case studies must be treated with caution
-damage to a particular region does not mean that the area is particularly associated with a type of LTM
Strength - research support for the distinction between implicit and explicit memory
-Finke et al. 2012 found evidence from case study
-Patient PM suffered from amnesia due to a virus
-like Patient HM, he had no issue with his implicit memory (procedural)
-he could still remember how to read and perform music
-however, his episodic and semantic memory was affected
Strength - helpful real world applications:
-Belleville et al. 2006 compared performance of older people who received memory training for a mild cognitive impairment to a control group that did not
-participants in the experimental group performed better on a test of episodic memory
-therefore, being able to identify different types of LTM can help psychologists to devise appropriate treatments
Outline the key features of the Working Memory Model, in relation to its capacity and coding
-MSM failed to explain some findings from dual task studies
-hence proposed in 1974 by Baddeley and Hitch
-focuses on STM and has 4 main components
Central executive:
-“boss” of the WMM
-can process information from any sensory modality
-controls attention and directs information to the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad
Phonological loop:
-temporary storage system for verbal information (speech-based form)
-made up of the articulatory control process (the ‘inner voice’) and the phonological store (the ‘inner ear’)
-the articulatory control process allows for subvocal repetition of acoustic information
-phonological store is a temporary storage space with a limited capacity for coding acoustic information
Visuo-spatial sketchpad:
-temporary storage system for visual/spatial information
-made up of the inner scribe and the visual cache
-inner scribe deals with manipulation of mental images
-visual cache has a limited capacity for coding visual and spatial information
Episodic Buffer:
-integrates information from all components and passes it to the LTM
-codes both visual and acoustic information, but has a limited capacity
Evaluate Baddeley and Hitch’s Working Memory Model
Strength - research support from study of Patient KF:
-Shallice and Warrington (1974)
-following his injury in a motorcycle accident, he could recall stored information from his LTM, but had issues with his STM
-could remember visual images (e.g. faces), but not sounds (acoustic information)
-suggests that there at least two components: one for acoustic information (phonological loop) and another for visual images (visuo-spatial sketchpad)
Strength - Dual task studies by Baddeley and Hitch (1976) provides support:
-participants must complete two tasks simultaneously
-when both tasks require the same component to be used, the ability to do this is impaired (weakened)
-when one task requires the phonological loop and the other requires the visuo-spatial sketchpad, ability is not impaired
-hence two tasks can be done simultaneously
-supports idea that the STM is multi-component
-however, these studies tend to lack ecological validity
artficial tasks cannot be gneralised to everyday examples of dual task activites
Limitation - only focuses on STM:
-link between WMM and LTM is not explained
-unknown how information is passed from STM to LTM and back again
-therefore, the WMM is an incomplete model and is overly simplistic
-requires other theories to gain a complete picture of this complex cognitive phenomenon
-furthermore, reductionist
-reduces STM to individual components, rather than looking at it as a whole
-ignores other types of information, e.g. tactile
State the 3 different explanations for forgetting
Proactive interference, retroactive interference and retrieval failure due to absence of cues (includes context-dependent and state-dependent forgetting)
Outline proactive interference and retroactive interference
Proactive interference:
-when old information stored in LTM interferes with the learning of new information
-usually when old and new information are similar
-e.g. struggling to remember a new phone number due to the existing memory of your old phone number
Key Study: Keppel and Underwood (1962):
Aim: to investigate the effect of proactive interference on LTM
Method:
-participants were presented with three-letter consonant trigrams
-had to recall at different intervals (e.g. 3,6,9 seconds)
-Participants had to count backwards in threes to prevent rehearsal
Results: Participants typically remembered trigrams that were learnt first, irrespective of interval length
Conclusion: The resuts suggest that proactive interference occurred, as memory of older trigrams which had transferred to LTM interfered with the memory of new trigrams, due to the similarity of consonants
Retroactive interference:
-when new information learnt interferes with the memory of old information
-e.g. it becomes difficult to remember your old phone number after learning your new one
Key Study: Baddeley and Hitch (1977)
Aim: to investigate retroactive interference in everyday memory
Method: Using a sample of rugby union players who played every match in the season and some who missed some matches due to injury, players were asked to recall the teams they had previously played against earlier in the season (length of the season was same for all players)
Results: players who had participated in most games forgot proportionately more than those who played fewer games
Conclusion: this was the result of retroactive interference, as the learning of new team names interfered with the memory of the names of teams they had played earlier
Evaluate interference as an explanation for forgetting
Strength - research support:
-McGeoch and McDonald (1931) gave participants 10 adjectives to learn (List A)
-then one of six other lists to learn (List B)
-which varied in similarity to the original
-found that recall was worse when lists A and B were closest in similarity
-supports idea of retroactive interference
-the more similar the new information to the old information, the greater the interference
Limitation - only explains a specific type of forgetting (memory for similar information):
-Keppel and Underwood used the recall of trigrams and Baddeley and Hitch used the recall of team names
-both of these highlight interference effects of very similar information
-limited in its real world application, as it is unable to explain forgetting in other stiuations
Limitation - lacks ecological validity:
-research is criticised for its artificial nature
-generally carried out in a laboratory (e.g. Keppel and Underwood (1962) and McGeoch and McDonald (1931), while using meaningless stimuli like simple word lists or consonant trigrams
-these findings do not represent everyday examples of forgetting, making it difficult to apply this to everyday human memory
Explain the encoding specificity principle
-proposed by Tulving and Thomson (1973)
-argued that memory is most effective when information that was present at the time of encoding is present at the time of recall
-two types of cues aid recall: environmental cues and mental cues
Outline and evaluate context-dependent forgetting
-when environmental cues (the room in which information is learnt) aid recall
Key Study: Godden and Baddeley (1975)
Aim: to investigate the effect of contextual cues on recall
Method: sample of 18 members of a university diving club (13 male and 5 female) were presented with 38 words that they heard twice before having to write all the words they could remember in any order, under 4 conditions:
-learning words on land and recalling on land
-learning words on land and recalling underwater
-learning words underwater and recalling underwater
-learning words underwater and recalling on land
-was a repeated measures design, as all participants took part in all conditions, over 4 separate days
Results: words learned underwater were better recalled underwater. Words learned on land were better recalled on land.
Conclusion: reasonable to conclude that environmental cues improve recall
Evaluation points:
Limitation: other variables were not controlled
-divers took part in the experiment at different times of the day and at different diving locations
-each diver may have experienced different contextual cues, which may have affected their memory
-therefore, we are unable to conclude whether the context-dependent forgetting is due to the land/underwater cues, or another contextual cue
Limitation: Repeated measures design
-possibility that divers worked out aim of experiment and displayed demand characteristics
-could have displayed practice effects where recall improved due to completing the experiment multiple times
-however, an independent measures design would have required more participants, which is difficult as they need to be trained divers
-furthermore, sample was just 18 divers, so conclusions should be treated with caution as it may not apply to a wider range of people
Limitation: Lacks ecological validity
-context/conditions were a bit extreme
-provides little insight into everyday examples of context-dependent forgetting
Limitation: Criticised for breaking ethical guidelines, particularly protection from harm
-one diver was reportedly almost run over by an ex-army amphibious DUKW
-more precautions should have been taken to ensure safety of participants
Outline and evaluate state-dependent forgetting
-when mental cues (e.g. the emotional state experienced when information is encoded) aid recall
-risk that state-dependent forgetting could occur when the same psychological state is not experience at the time of recall
-often seen with alcohol intoxication and the absence of accurate memories when sober
Key Study: Carter and Cassaday (1998)
Aim: to examine state-dependent forgetting using anti-histamine drugs (typically administered for hayfever relief but are also known for their sedating effects)
Method: Anti-histamine drugs make the individual feels drowsy and not as alert, providing a comparison to everyday non-drug-induced behaviour. Participants had to learn a list of words and excerpts from a text and then recall the information later. There were 4 conditions:
-learn information after taking anti-histamines and recall after taking anti-histamines
-learn information after taking anti-histamines and recall before taking anti-histamines
-learn information before taking anti-histamines and recall after taking anti-histamines
-learn information before taking anti-histamines and recall before taking anti-histamines
Results: memory was improved in the conditions where the learning and recalling state matched, whereas memory was poorer when the physiological state at the time of recall was different to that at the time of learning
Conclusion: state-dependent forgetting is likely to occur when the emotional cues during the time of learning information are absent at the time of recalling the information
Evaluation points:
Strength: Research support
-Goodwin et al. (1969) asked male volunteers to remember a list of words when they were either drunk or sober
-they then had to recall the words 24 hours later, while either drunk or sober
-results support Carter and Cassaday (1998) as words learned when drunk were better recalled when drunk, and words learned when sober were better recalled when sober
-therefore supports the idea of state-dependent failure
Strength: Further research support (wider range of substances)
-Darley et al. (1973) researched the impact of marijuana on memory
-individuals who were under the influence of marijuana when putting money in a ‘safe place’ were less likely to recall this location once they were no longer under the influence
-adds weight to the idea that the physiological state that a person is in at the time of encoding is important for retrieval
Strength: Independent Measures Design
-as participants did not do more than one condition, they are less likely to demonstrate practice effects, or to change their behaviour which would reduce the internal validity of the results
Limitation: issues with determining a cause and effect relationship with retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
-Nairne (2002) criticised research in this area and suggested that it merely shows a correlation between the cues present at the time of encoding and cues present at the time of retrieval
-further suggested that cues do not lead to retrieval failure/success, but are simply associated with it
-psychologists are therefore unable to conclude whether a lack of cues actually causes retrieval failure
Explain what is meant by the term ‘eyewitness testimony’ and state the factors affecting it
-the evidence given in court or a police investigation by someone who has witnessed a crime/accident
-factors affecting it include misleading information, including leading questions and post-event discussion; anxiety
Explain and evaluate both experiments by Loftus and Palmer (1974) and research about leading questions
Experiment 1
Aim: to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Method:
-45 American students were divided into 5 groups of 9 and had to watch a video of a car crash
-They were then asked a specific question about the speed of the car using different verbs: smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted
-independent measures design as participants only took part in one condition
Results: Participants who were given the verb “smashed” estimated an average speed of 40.5mph, whereas participants who were given the word “contacted” estimated a speed of 31.8mph
Conclusion: the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is affected by leading questions, and even a single word can significantly affect the accuracy of judgements
Experiment 2
Aim: to investigate further how leading questions can affect eyewitness testimony
Method:
-150 American students, divided into 3 groups of 50, watched a 1-minute video of a car accident and had to complete a questionnaire
-1 group was asked about the car’s speed using the verb ‘hit,’ 1 group was asked about speed using ‘smashed,’ and the control group was not asked about speed
-A week later, the participants returned and were asked some questions, with the critical question being “Did you see any broken glass?”
-There was no broken glass.
-32% of the group who were previously questioned using “smashed” said there was broken glass,
-14% of the group questioned using “hit” reported broken glass,
-12% of the control group reported broken glass
-group questioned using “smashed” were significantly more likely to report broken glass, as the earlier leading question had connotations of faster speeds and broken glass,
-distorted their memory of the original event. Therefore, this demonstrates the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Evaluating Loftus and Palmer:
Limitation - questionable ecological validity:
-questioning witnesses about car accidents is a genuine everyday measure of eyewitness testimony
-however, participants witnessed the car crash from start to finish, whereas witnesses typically only see part of the incident occurring, or witness the crash from their peripheral vision
-unable to conclude if eyewitnesses to real accidents, who have a stronger emotional connection to the event, would be susceptible to leading questions in the same way
Limitation - lacks population validity:
-two experiments had 45 and 150 university students
-less experienced drivers, so they may be less accurate at estimating speeds
-unable to generalise results to other populations, like older, more experienced drivers, as they may be less susceptible to leading questions due to higher accuracy of estimating speeds
Strength - highly controlled:
-experiments took place in a lab, so reduces chance of extraneous variables
-increases validity of results
-furthermore, psychologists can easily replicate their research to see if the same results are achieved with other populations
Explain and evaluate Gabbert et al (2003) and research into post-event discussion
Aim: to investigate the effect of post-event discussion on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Method:
-60 students from University of Aberdeen and 60 older adults recruited from the community
-showed a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet
-Participants were either tested individually (control group) or in pairs (co-witness group)
-The co-witness group believed they watched the same video but one saw a video of her actually committing the crime, whereas one did not
-Participants in the co-witness group discussed the crime
-then completed a questionnaire, testing their memory of the event
Results: 72% of the witnesses in the cowitness group reported information they had not witnessed, and 60% reported the girl as guilty, despite not seeing her commit a crime
Conclusion: The results highlight the issue of post-event discussion and that it has a powerful effect on eyewitness testimony
Evaluation points:
Limitation - questionable ecological validity:
-witnessed different perspectives of the crime, which reflects everyday crime witnesses
-however, they knew they were taking part in an experiment, so they may have paid more attention, whereas in real-life crimes witnesses may be exposed to less information
Strength - good population validity:
-used both university students and older adults
-found little difference between the two conditions
-allows us to conclude that post-event discussion affect younger and older adults in a similar way
Limitation - further research required:
-unable to conclude why the distortion of memory occurs
-could be due to poor memory, as people are unable to distinguish between they have seen (their account) and what they have heard (other people’s accounts)
-however, could also be due to conformity and social pressure within the co-witness group
Explain and evaluate research into anxiety and its effect on eyewitness testimony
Loftus (1979) reported the findings of Johnson and Scott (1976), who conducted an experiment to investigate whether anxiety affects eyewitness testimony and facial recognition
Aim: to investigate whether anxiety affects accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Method:
-participants were invited to a lab and were told to stay in the waiting area
-receptionist excused herself to run an errand, leaving the participant alone
-used an independent measures design as participants were exposed to 1 of 2 conditions
-1) participant overheard a conversation in the lab about equipment failure, followed by an individual (the target) walking out holding a pen covered in grease
-2)participant overheard a heated exchange in the lab, followed by someone running towards the reception holding a knife covered in blood
-both groups were shown 50 photographs and had to identify the target. They were told the suspect may or may not be present in the photographs
Results: those who witnessed the man holding the pen (‘no weapon’ group) correctly identified target 49% of the time. Those who witnessed the man holding the knife (‘weapon’ group) correctly identified target 33% of the time
Conclusion: participants exposed to the knife had more anxiety, and were more likely to focus attention on the weapon than the face. Due to the weapon focus effect, the anxiety reduced the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Evaluation points:
Limitation - real-life case study contradicts results
-Yuille and Cutshall (1986) investigated the effect of anxiety in a real life shooting, where 1 person was killed and another seriously wounded
-13 of the 21 witnesses in the original police investigation agreed to participate in a follow-up interview 4-5 months later
-found that all 13 witnesses provided accurate information and there was little change in their testimonies
-only minor details changed, like estimation of height/weight/age
-anxiety experienced at the time had little to no impact on their recall of the event, showing that in real life cases of extreme anxiety, accuracy of eyewitness testimony is not affected
-furthermore, the participants did not respond in a biased way to leading questions
Limitation - lacks ecological validity
-participants were waiting in the reception area, but may have anticipated something was going to happen
-this would affect accuracy of judgements
Limitation - broke several ethical guidelines
-participants were deceived into thinking the experiment had not begun yet
-furthermore, lack of protection from harm for the participants who saw a knife
-may have caused increased stress levels, especially for people who may have known someone involved in a knife crime
Describe the cognitive interview process
-developed by Geiselman et al. (1985) in response to criticisms of the traditional police interview
-identified 4 key principles that would enhance recall:
1) Context reinstatement (CR): person mentally recalls the context of the event (e.g. time/weather), which triggers person to recall more information. This has clear links to context-dependent and state-dependent forgetting
2) Report everything (RE): person recalls everything, even trivial details
3) Recall from changed perspective (CP): considers event from another perspective (e.g. the offender’s POV)
4) Recall in reverse order (RO): person recalls events in reverse chronological order
Outline and evaluate research into the effectiveness of the cognitive interview, in comparison to traditional police interviews
Geiselman (1985)
Aim: to examine the effectiveness of the cognitive interview
Method:
-89 students watched a simulated crime video
-were interviewed 2 days later using either the standard police interview or the cognitive interview
Results:
-those interviewed using the cognitive interview recalled significantly more correct information (41.5 items compared to 29.3 items in the standard police interview group).
-furthermore, both groups had similar numbers of errors
-(7.3 by cognitive group and 6.1 by standard police group)
Conclusion: the cognitive interview is effective in improving the quantity of information recalled, and does not increase the amount of incorrect information
Evaluation points:
Strength - Further research support:
-Fisher et al. (1989) examined effectiveness of the cognitive interview with real police
-16 experienced detectives recorded a selection of their interviews using standard police interview
-detectives were divided into 2 groups, where 1 group was trained to use the cognitive interview, whereas the control group continued using the standard police interview
-in the subsequent interviews, it was found that trained detectives elicited 46% more information than the control group
-over 90% of the information was confirmed to be accurate
Limitation - Contradictory research:
-Centofanti and Reece (2006) concluded that the cognitive interview was still susceptible to leading questions
-participants were shown a bank robbery video
-then given either a misleading or neutral post-event summary
-participants interviewed using the cognitive interview recalled 35% more information
-however, both groups were equally susceptible to misleading information
-therefore, interviewers need to ensure that participants are not exposed to this through leading questions or post-event discussion
Limitation - requires special training:
-Kebbell and Wagstaff (1996) found that police typically interview using techniques that limit the quantity of information provided, rather than those that improve accuracy
-many police forces are not provided more than rudimentary training, so cognitive interview is not used readily
PMT
