Approaches Flashcards
(29 cards)
Outline the origins of psychology timeline
1879:
-Wundt opened first experimental psychology lab
-before this, psychology was only regarded as an experimental branch within philosophy
1900:
-Freud established psychodynamic approach
-highlighted importance of unconscious mind on behaviour
-developed his own therapy called psychoanalysis
1913:
–Watson and Skinner established behaviourist approach
-criticised Freud and Wundt
-argued that true scientific psychology is the study of directly observable and measurable phenomena
-believed all behaviour is learnt
1950s:
-Rogers and Maslow developed humanistic approach
-rejected psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches
-emphasised importance of free will by trying to understand the whole person
1960s:
-cognitive approach emerged with the introduction of the computer
-study of mental processes
-belief that we can make inferences about how the mind works based on results from laboratory experiments
1980s:
-biological approach became the most dominant approach
-due to advances in psychology
-e.g. brain scans = increased understanding of human brain
2000:
-cognitive neuroscience has emerged in the forefront of psychology
-brings together biological and cognitive approaches
-investigates how biological structures influences mental states
significance of Wilhelm Wundt and introspection
-Wundt founded the Institute of Experimental Psychology
-published one of the first books on psychology
-helped establish the subject as an independent branch of science
Wundt’s approach = structuralism
-use of the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception
-use of introspection in controlled environments to establish general theories about mental processes
-Wundt identified higher mental processes (learning, language, emotions, etc.) that could not be studied in a strictly controlled manner
-development of the field of cultural psychology was based on general trends in behaviour of groups of people
Introspection:
-enables the observation of our inner world
-Wundt suggested that introspection could be used to systematically observe mental processes, e.g. memory and perception as they occurred
-e.g. observing an object and being asked to reflect on how they perceive it
-Wundt’s participants were given a carefully controlled stimuli
-e.g visual images or auditory tones
-were asked to provide a description of their inner processes
-made it possible to compare the results in response to the same stimuli
-hence can establish theories on perception
Evaluate introspection, including Wundt’s role in the emergence of psychology as a science
Limitation - introspection is subjective
-scientific methods are expected to be objective
-Wundt relied on trained participants to report their own conscious experiences, e.g. thoughts, feelings, and sensations, in response to stimuli
-however, these introspective methods were not reliably reproduced
-lacked consistency between participants, making replication difficult
-this contradicts the scientific method, which values objectivity, control, and replicability
-hence Wundt’s approach lacked scientific validation
-limits its contribution to psychology as an objective science
Limitation - many mental processes occur outside of conscious awareness
-questionable validity of the method
-Nisbett and Wilson (1977) found that individuals are often unaware of the factors influencing their behaviour
-suggests that introspective accounts may be inaccurate or incomplete
-undermines the usefulness of introspection for understanding the mind
-as people may not have access to the true causes of their thoughts and behaviour
-however, introspection has not been entirely abandoned
-still sometimes used in modern psychological research
-e.g. Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter (2003) used introspective methods in the form of the ‘experience sampling method’ to study the flow state in everyday life
-indicates that while introspection is limited, it can still offer valuable insights when used alongside scientific methods
Limitation - had less influence on the development of psychology compared to other early approaches
-e.g. behaviourists like Pavlov focused on observable behaviour
-used controlled experimental methods to produce reliable and generalisable findings
-these principles aligned more with the scientific approach
-laid the groundwork for psychology as an evidence-based science
-hence behaviourist contributions arguably had a greater impact on the development of psychology as a discipline
Strength - Wundt’s emphasis on studying the mind and internal processes through introspection can be seen as a forerunner to the cognitive approach
-also focuses on internal mental processes but uses scientific methods
-e.g. lab experiments and computer models
-hence Wundt’s work inspired deeper study of mental processes, despite limitations of his original methods
What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
-psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour
–all behaviour is learned
-humans are no different to animals and should not be regarded as more complex
-research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans
Explain what classical conditioning is, in terms of Ivan Pavlov’s method
-type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex is associated with a new stimulus
-tested theory using dogs
-conditioned dogs to associate the sound of bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus)
-led to dogs producing a salivation response (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus)
-was seen even in the absence of food
-hence repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour
-can be used to explain how phobias are acquired and how attachments develop
Explain operant conditioning in terms of Skinner’s research. Include the different types of reinforcement
-learning through the consequences of our actions
-3 types of reinforcement affect behaviour
-positive reinforcement: behaviour followed by reward is likely to be repeated
-negative reinforcement: behaviour followed by removal of adverse consequence it is likely to be repeated
-punishment: behaviour followed by unpleasant consequence is less likely to be repeated
-Skinner created the Skinner box to examine operant conditioning in rats/pigeons
-animal would move around cage
-when it pressed the lever by accident, it would be rewarded with food pellet
-animal learned through positive reinforcement that pressing lever will give it food
-hence learnt a new voluntary behaviour that is repeated to receive reward again
evaluate the behaviourist approach
Strength - significant contributions to the emerging recognition of psychology as a science
-experimental methods used by Pavlov and Skinner rejected the earlier emphasis in psychology on introspection
-encouraged research that focused on more objective dimensions of behaviour
-According to behaviourists, this emphasis on the scientific method has led to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour
-these methods have also helped psychology gain credibility and status as a scientific discipline
-hence attracts more funding and research opportunities.
Strength - behaviourists were influential in encouraging the use of animals as research subjects
-they believed that the learning processes in humans and animals are very similar
-consequently, Pavlov conducted research using dogs, and Skinner used rats and pigeons
-furthermore, using non-human animals in research gives experimenters more control over the process, without demand characteristics or individual differences influencing findings
-however, many consider using animals in experiments to be unethical as there is less concern about protection from harm for non-human subjects
-furthermore, some argue that findings from animal experiments are not generalisable to human behaviour
-Skinner’s operant conditioning theory may provide an understanding of rat behaviour, but little about human behaviour.
Strength - important contributions to our modern understanding of human mental illness
-e.g. many phobias are thought to be the result of earlier unpleasant learning experiences
-consequently, this understanding has helped psychologists develop therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, that attempt to re-condition a patient’s fear response
-furthermore, some addictions such as gambling can be better understood through operant conditioning
-e.g. the rewards of gambling could be seen to reinforce the destructive behaviour
-demonstrates that the behaviourist approach has many real-world applications in the understanding and treatment of atypical behaviour
Limitation - criticised for its limited view regarding the origins of behaviour
-ignores alternative levels of explanation including the role of cognition and emotional factors in influencing behaviour
-however, Skinner countered this argument
-stated that for behaviour to be investigated scientifically, it had to be directly measurable and observable, which cognitions are not
-furthermore, he said that even the most complex of human interactions could be explained using operant conditioning principles of learning by the consequences of our actions to either repeat or cease the behaviour
Outline the psychodynamic approach: role of unconscious and structure of personality
-Sigmund Freud proposed the notion of the unconscious
-three main assumptions:
-personality (psyche) has ID, ego and superego
-it is constructed by the passage through psychosexual stages of development throughout infancy and adolescence
-unconscious conflicts in the psyche are mediated by defence mechanisms
Role of the unconscious:
-according to the psychodynamic approach, there are vast parts of the mind that are inaccessible to conscious awareness
-traumatic events or childhood memories are repressed into the unconscious mind and kept hidden from conscious awareness
-however, psychodynamic theorists suggest that such events or memories are never truly forgotten
-can be explored through psychoanalysis
-can reveal itself through dreams, fantasies and Freudian slips
Structure of the Personality:
ID:
-pure erotic energy
-is governed by the pleasure principle
-consists of primal urges
-only seeks pleasure and instant gratification
-operates on instinct and is the part of the personality which is present at birth
Ego:
-governed by the reality principle
-tames the id and balances the demands of the superego
-ego is absent at birth
-arises in response to control by others, specifically parents during the anal stage of development at around two years old
Superego:
-governed by the morality principle: our sense of right and wrong
-characterised by the ‘inner voice’ that tells us when we have crossed into the boundaries of unacceptable behaviour
-superego is the internalised parent
-develops in response to parental discipline around five years old
Outline defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach
Repression:
when a traumatic or distressing memory is forced out of conscious awareness and into the unconscious mind
Denial:
-involves a refusal to accept truth or reality of situation, acting as if nothing distressing has happened
Displacement:
-cannot directly express feelings towards a target individual
-hence transfer it onto someone/something else
Outline the psychosexual stages
Mnemonic: Old Aged People Love Gravy
Oral:
-0-2 years
-focus is mouth
-infant experiences pleasure through sucking and biting
-unresolved conflict = oral fixation: might engage in behaviours like smoking, nail-biting, etc.
Anal:
-2-3 years
-focus is anus
-child becomes aware that they must undergo potty training to control their bowel movements
-Ego develops in this stage
-unresolved conflict = anal fixation:
1) Anal retentive:
-might become an obsessive perfectionist
2) Anal expulsive:
-might be messy and thoughtless.
Phallic:
-3-6 years
-focus is genitals
-infant boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother by identifying with their father
-Superego develops.
Latent:
-6-puberty
-focus is hidden
-sexual energy which has driven the previous stages now becomes latent
-allows individual to focus on the world around them and form friendships
Genital:
-puberty+
-focus is forming heterosexual relationships
-psychosexual energy takes residence in the genitals
-directed towards formation of adult relationships
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach
Strength - real world applications
-better understanding of unconscious motives and demonstrable defence mechanisms has led to development of psychotherapeutic techniques
-e.g. psychoanalysis
-still used to treat patients with persistent psychological health issues today
-however, evidence for these ideas is almost entirely clinical rather than empirical
-its scientific credibility is questionable
Strength - research support for effectiveness of psychoanalysis
-Biskup et al. (2005) reported a naturalistic study of 36 patients
-77% of the patients showed clinically significant improvements after psychoanalysis
-Furthermore, Bachrach et al. (2000) conducted meta-analysis of every major study of the effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment
-results show that despite a lack of empirical support for psychodynamic theories, psychoanalysis is effective at treating a range of psychological disorders
Limitation - Freud’s ideas demonstrate a significant gender bias
-his obsession with the Oedipus complex is androcentric
-many would claim this makes them irrelevant to an understanding of women
-however, female psychoanalysts like Melanie Klein have shown that even gender-biased theories can be adapted to provide useful insights into female behaviour
-hence, Freud’s work has still been used to develop important and influential theories that apply to women
Limitation - psychoanalytic theory is culturally biased
-all of Freud’s patients came from the Viennese middle-class
-his universal generalisations were based on this highly unrepresentative sample
-there is considerable evidence to suggest that it is only suitable for cultures where the discussion of personal problems is encouraged
-casts doubt on the effectiveness of any psychoanalytic treatments for other cultures
-furthermore, mostly uses case studies
-does not use controlled experiments to collect empirical evidence
-hence considered far less scientific than other approaches
Limitation - suffers from psychic determinism
-suggests that human behaviour is governed by unconscious drives and early traumatic childhood experiences which are repressed into the unconscious mind
-hence suggests an individual does not have free will over their behaviour
-furthermore, it lacks falsifiability
-e.g. if male individual refutes the idea that he went through a stage of psychosexual development in his youth, psychodynamic theorists would counter this with the supposition that they were in denial
-lacks scientific credibility since the initial claim cannot be refuted
Limitation - not empirically testable
-e.g. the human mind cannot be dissected to reveal the id, ego and superego
-hence cannot scientifically explain human behaviour
-as the understanding of behaviour relies solely on the subjective interpretation of the psychoanalyst
Outline the Oedipus / Electra complex
Oedipus complex
-boys want to be close with mother and see father as a rival
-fear that father will castrate them (castration anxiety)
-to reduce anxiety, boys use defence mechanisms and identify with their father
-boy internalises male characteristics to come out of the Oedipus complex
Electra complex
-girls want to be close with father
-don’t fear their mother as they believe that they have already been castrated
-instead they experience penis-envy
-girls fear losing their mother’s love
-to reduce anxiety girls identify with their mother
-girls internalise female characteristics to come out of the Electra complex
Outline the humanistic approach, including Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943)
-assumes that every individual can assert free will and have a choice in how they behave
-means that everyone can consciously control and influence their own personal destiny, even within the constraints that exist in life from outside forces
Hierarchy (ascending order):
Physiological needs:
-food, breathing, sleep, homeostasis
Safety and security:
-house, employment, family, health, morality
Love and belonging:
-friendship, family, sense of connection
Self esteem:
-confidence, achievement, respect for others
Self-actualisation:
-creativity, acceptance of facts, lack of prejudice
-provides the possibility of true self-awareness and an honest relationship with the realities of an imperfect world
Evaluate the humanistic approach
Strength - has had a major influence on psychological counselling
-contemporary therapists use Rogers’ ideas of unconditional positive regard and help clients work toward self-awareness
-makes it a useful theory with real-world applications
-impossible to imagine modern client-centred therapy without its insights and techniques.
Limitation - evidence for existence of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is empirically thin
-however, is to be expected from an approach that disputes the validity of empirical research
-there is some validation provided by clinical data, with some surprising confirmation from the realm of management studies (Maslow, 1965; Rogers and Roethlisberger, 1982)
-however, the theoretical emphasis on individual achievement raises significant concerns about possible cultural bias
-as this is not desirable in every culture
-may only be a feature of Westernised or individualistic nations
Limitation - hard to scientifically test the effectiveness of humanistic counselling
-as it can’t be done in an experimental context
-people believe they benefit from counselling
-there is considerable empirical evidence available to support the effectiveness of counselling methods derived from Rogers’ model, like CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) and ACT (acceptance and commitment therapy)
-however a cause-effect relationship cannot be established between the treatment and outcome
-hence lacks scientific certainty about the validity of the theory
Limitation - criticised for offering an unrealistic view of human nature
-psychologists point to the more sinister aspects of human behaviour and argue that the humanistic approach focuses on
‘growth-orientated’ behaviour whilst ignoring an individual’s capacity for self-destruction
-consequently, it is argued that the focus on self-development overlooks possible situational forces that may provide a more realistic explanation of everyday human behaviour
Issues and Debates
Strength - idiographic approach
-focuses on subjective human experience whilst making no attempts to generate universal laws
-holistic stance compared to other approaches
-furthermore, concept of free will is central to humanistic thinking
-advocates of this approach believe that behaviour is a choice, rather than determined by outside forces
-hence an individual can directly control and influence their own destiny
Outline the Social Learning Theory and the study associated with it
-learning is a social phenomenon
-occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models, who model behaviour in a social environment
-SLT recognises the importance of cognition and mediational processes
-rejects notion that learning is purely the outcome of a stimulus-response loop
-if the person observing the behaviour sees the person as a ‘role model’, they will identify with them
-identification: person associates with the qualities, characteristics and views of role models, to become more like that person
-Shutts et al. (2010) suggests that for children, the age and gender similarity to models is an important determinant of imitation
-SLT is defined by four mediational processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
-if these factors are implemented, imitation (i.e. copying of what has been observed) can take place
-if the observed behaviour is rewarded, imitation is more likely (vicarious reinforcement)
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) - The Bobo Doll Experiment
-investigated whether aggression can be learned through SLT principles
Method: 72 children (36 male and 36 female) aged between 3 and 6 years old were put into one of three groups for 10 minutes
1) Aggressive model:
-child played in room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”
-further sub-divided by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating four conditions:
-male child, male role-model
-male child, female role-model
-female child, male role-model
-female child, female role-model
2) Non aggressive model:
-child played in room while an adult played quietly
-group was further sub-divided once again by gender of the child and the adult model, creating another four conditions
3) Control group - the child did not see a model.
-they were deliberately frustrated by being taken into another room where they were told that they could not play with any toys
-children from all 3 groups were placed alone in a room
-had a range of aggressive and non-aggressive toys and the Bobo doll
-observed for twenty minutes
Results:
-children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either of the other two groups
-boys imitated same-sex models more than girls
-girls imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models
-hence children can learn aggressive behaviour through observation and imitation of a model
Evaluate the social learning theory
Strength - plentiful research support
-e.g. Fox and Bailenson (2009) found humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to themselves
-Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who agreed to donate blood
-Myers (2015) confirmed that vicarious learning is vital for effective teamwork in the workplace
-these studies demonstrate support for different aspects of SLT
-adds credibility to key principles of this theory
Limitation - Bandura’s research is criticised for being a laboratory experiment
-artificial nature and strict control over extraneous variables
-hence possible for demand characteristics to occur
-children may pick up on cues in the environment and guess the aim of the investigation
-hence adjust their behaviour accordingly
-lowers internal validity of the study
-therefore, participants may have been acting aggressively way towards the Bobo doll as that is what they thought was expected of them
-rather than it being a genuine and new learned behaviour
Strength - application to real-world issues
-SLT has been featured in explanations of criminal behaviour for a long time (Sykes and Matza, 1957)
-it has also been used to evaluate the effectiveness of advertising
-Andsager et al. (2006) found that identification with a character or example may increase the likelihood that audiences will model behaviour presented in an anti-alcohol message
-consequently, the principles of SLT can be used to provide a positive impact on promotional health campaigns
-indirectly helps combat problems like alcoholism
Limitation - cannot establish firm cause and effect relationship
-not clear if people learn behaviour from models, or if they seek out models who exhibit behaviour or attitudes they already favour
-e.g. Siegel and McCormick (2006) argue that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to associate with similarly-inclined peers
-as they are more fun to be with
-therefore the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process
-not necessarily the result of SLT itself
-furthermore, SLT struggles to explain complex behaviours like gender development
-when growing up, children are exposed to a whole host of influences that interact in a complex way
-hence difficult to distinguish behaviours that develop due to SLT from the many other factors that contribute to human behaviour
Define internal mental processes
Outline the cognitive approach in terms of:
-the study of internal mental processes
-the role of schema
-the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes
-emergence of cognitive neuroscience
What are internal mental processes?
-how information is processed in the mind
-including conscious and unconscious thoughts
-cognitive psychologists believe internal mental processes can be studied scientifically without being directly observed
(Remember P-PALM)
-e.g. problem-solving, perception, attention, language and memory
-use inferences to make assumptions about the internal mental processes that produce observable behaviour
-helps them understand human experience
The Role of The Schema
-emphasises how perception and memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks
-schemas are mental frameworks of information
-used to organise past experiences and to interpret and respond to new situations
-example of top-down information-processing
-as they provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world, rather than requiring us to process every single detail, all of the time
-as we age, our schemas become increasingly sophisticated
-allow us to “fill in the gaps” in our knowledge
-hence can make sense of ambiguous or complex situations more easily
-however, schemas can lead to errors in information-processing e.g. prejudice and discrimination
The Use of Theoretical Models
-visual representations (e.g. flowcharts) help researchers simplify and study complex processes
-show how information is passed between the different systems that manipulate it
-e.g. the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)
-the WMM (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) is a theoretical model of short-term memory
The Use of Computer Models
-inspired by the development of computers in the 1960s
-used to explain different mental processes
-e.g. analogy of LTM being the hard disk and STM being the computer’s RAM (Random Access Memory) has been applied to the human brain
-computer models of memory have been particularly useful in the development of artificial intelligence (AI)
The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience
-attempts to bridge the gap between the cognitive and biological approaches
-techniques have been developed to scan the brain while it is actively processing information
-some are non-invasive like PET (positron emission tomography) scans and MRIs (magnetic resonance imaging)
-helps understand which brain areas are active during specific internal mental processes
-e.g. brain scans have highlighted the distinction between different types of long-term memory (LTM)
-the hippocampus is associated with episodic memory
-the temporal lobe is associated with semantic memory
-the cerebellum and motor cortex are associated with procedural memories
-brain imaging techniques have successfully established link to certain mental health disorders
-e.g. the association between OCD and the parahippocampal gyrus
Evaluate the cognitive approach
Strength - increased sophistication and availability of cognitive techniques
-e.g. recent advances in neuroimaging technology, such as fMRI, have been useful for theoretical models
-as it provides empirical confirmation of brain activity for specific cognitive functions under controlled conditions
-however, some psychologists insist that neuroimaging evidence is only correlational
-therefore lacks true scientific validation
Strength - recognises complexity of human behaviour
-does not assert a reductionist explanation of mental processes
-all cognition undoubtedly rests on a biological foundation since it occurs in the brain and is made possible by its operation
-however, the precise nature of consciousness, memory and perception are not easily reducible to purely biological outcomes
Strength - real-world applications
-e.g. cognitive research into memory and the effects of misleading information has reduced the use of eyewitness testimony in court cases
-led to major reforms in police procedure, like the use of the cognitive interview
-furthermore, better understanding of thought patterns has deepened insight into mental illnesses
-hence higher success rate for treatments like CBT for depression
-indicates that cognitive research has made concrete contributions to contemporary society
-however, not all human behaviour is linked to cognition
-cognitive research tends to neglect other significant dimensions of behaviour
-e.g. emotion and motivation
-may be linked to cognition, but are not the same
Issues and Debates
Strength - pays respect to both the nature and nurture element of this debate
-recognises that behaviour is the result of information processing
-occurs in the brain, which of biological origin (nature)
-but concepts like schema are modified by experience in the environment (nurture)
-furthermore, uses both nomothetic and idiographic approaches in psychology
-attempts to establish universal laws to explain behaviour
-while drawing on the findings of individual case studies, such as Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing
Outline the biological approach in terms of:
-The Influence of Genes: Genotype and Phenotype
-The Influence of Biological Structures
-The Influence of Neurochemistry
-Evolution and Behaviour
The Influence of Genes: Genotype and Phenotype
-genes are passed on from one generation to the next
-carry information in the form of DNA, which carry instructions for characteristics
-e.g. eye colour, intelligence, etc
-genotype: genetic makeup, which is fixed from birth
-phenotype: expression of their genes which leads to the observable characteristics of a person
-phenotype is influenced by interaction between genetic inheritance and the environment
-there is evidence to show that some behavioural or psychological characteristics, e.g. intelligence/psychological illness, can be inherited in a similar way to physical characteristics, such as eye and hair colour
-much research in this area has used MZ twins as they share 100% of their DNA
-whereas DZ twins (non-identical) share 50% of their DNA
-Gottesman and Shields (1972) found that MZ twins have a higher concordance rate of developing schizophrenia than DZ twins
-e.g. McGuffin et al. (1996) found that if one identical twin has depression, there is a 46% chance that the other twin will also have it
-suggests that illnesses like schizophrenia and depression have a genetic component
-demonstrates the impact of genes on certain human conditions
The Influence of Biological Structures:
-structure of organs, e.g. brain, central nervous system (CNS), the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the endocrine system determine our behaviour
-nervous system transmits messages through neurons
-controls behaviour like eating (feeling hungry and satiated) and breathing
-furthermore, research has shown that the different lobes of the brain are linked with general functions
-e.g. the occipital lobe is associated with visual perception
-parietal lobe is linked to the processing of sensory information.
-effect of brain damage is demonstrated by the case study of Phineas Gage
-an explosion sent an iron bar through his head
-destroyed a large portion of his frontal cortex
-lost his ability to inhibit antisocial behaviour
-demonstrates the influence of frontal cortex on behaviour (inhibition)
The Influence of Neurochemistry
-at the synapse, signals are sent between neurones by neurotransmitters
-imbalances in the number of neurotransmitters are associated with atypical behaviour
-e.g. low serotonin has been associated with depression
-excess dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia
-research in this area helps us to understand the role of neurotransmitters
-e.g. Crockett et al. (2008) suggests that abnormally low levels of serotonin are linked to aggressive behaviour
-shows it is an important neurotransmitter that regulates behaviour and impulse control
-hormones can also influence behaviour
-released into bloodstream where they travel to specific target cells to activate them
-Carre et al. (2006) conducted study into behaviour of ice hockey players
-found high levels of testosterone are associated with defensiveness and territoriality
Evolution and Behaviour
-genes are the mechanism through which evolution takes place
-Darwin proposed process of natural selection
-ensures that characteristics which provide an evolutionary advantage, such as survival and enhanced reproductive chances, are passed from one generation to the next
-species which do not, die out
-Buss’s (1994) survey of heterosexual mate selection
-across all 37 countries studied, he found that men preferred good looks, youth and chastity,
-while women preferred good financial prospects, industriousness and dependability
-results suggest that certain behaviours and traits have evolved in both males and females
-as it increases chance of passing on favourable genes
Evaluate the biological approach
Limitation - explanations of brain structures are often based on correlational results
-one explanation of schizophrenia suggests that a lack of activity in the ventral striatum is linked to the development of negative symptoms
-problematic as it only shows an association between brain structures and behaviour
-cannot conclude that less activity in that brain region causes the behaviour, or that the behaviour causes lower activity in that part of the brain
-hence, it implies causation
Limitation - deterministic
-e.g. one assumption of the biological approach is that some human behaviours are the result of evolution
-they maximise our chances of survival and reproduction
-hence are ‘naturally selected’ and inherited from our ancestors
-such evolutionary claims are used to explain a variety of gender differences in human behaviour
-e.g. aggression and stress
-implies that humans have little control over their behaviour and are predetermined to act in a certain way
-ignores role of experience, free will, or the environment
-hence overemphasises the role of nature on behaviour
-furthermore, it’s an unfalsifiable explanation
-hence incapable of scientific validation
Strength - often utilises reliable methods of research
-e.g. fMRIs, PET scans, drug trials, and EEGs
-these techniques provide psychologists with an accurate measure of internal processes that were previously not accessible
-precise and scientific
-makes biological evidence less susceptible to misinterpretation or experimenter bias
Strength - many real-world applications.
-research into neurotransmitters had led to development of drug therapies for many mental illnesses
-also better understanding of how low levels of serotonin contribute to depressive symptoms
-led to development of antidepressants
-increase serotonin levels in the brain
-furthermore understanding abnormal neurochemical activity in the brain has not only been helpful for developing treatments but has also provided patients with an explanation that their illness is not their fault
Issues and Debates
Limitation - takes a reductionist approach
-phenomena are explained using genetic, neurochemical or structural explanations
-however, biological psychologists justify that complex human behaviour is best understood when broken down into its component parts
-furthermore, takes the nature side of the nature-nurture debate
-behaviour is determined by innate features including genes and neurotransmitters
-however, it has been acknowledged that phenotype is due to interaction between genes and environment
Usefulness of schemas?
-help us predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
-enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly
-prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
Disadvantages of schema?
-can distort our interpretation of sensory information
-lead to perceptual errors or inaccurate memories
-can cause biased recall
-negative schema may have negative impact on mental health
Determinism/free will in which approaches?
Learning Approaches:
-environmental determinism
-e.g. conditioning. In behaviourism
-individuals are largely controlled by stimuli and reinforcement patterns in their environment
-SLT, however, allows some role for free will
-acknowledges cognitive processes + ability to choose behaviours to imitate.
Cognitive Approach:
-soft determinism
-recognises that internal mental processes guide behaviour
-suggests that individuals can make choices based on their cognitive processing
-but implies that these choices are influenced by information processing constraints.
Biological Approach:
-biologically deterministic, little room for free will
=behaviour is strongly influenced by genetic, neurochemical, and structural factors.
-argues that biological factors set the parameters within which behaviour occurs
Psychodynamic Approach:
-psychic determinism
-behaviour is driven by unconscious forces, early experiences, and unresolved conflicts
-Freud argued that a lot of behaviour is beyond conscious control
-determined by the Id, Ego, and Superego’s conflicts
Humanistic Psychology:
-emphasises free will
-views individuals as self-determining agents
-capable of making choices and taking responsibility for their actions
-argues that people are not controlled by biology or environment
-motivated by the drive towards self-actualisation
Nature/nurture in which approaches?
Learning Approaches: Emphasises nurture. Behaviourism argues that behaviour is learned from the environment through conditioning. SLT also stresses environmental learning, though it acknowledges that cognitive factors (potentially influenced by biology) play a role.
Cognitive Approach: Interactionist, considering both nature and nurture. Cognitive processes are thought to have a biological basis, but experiences shape how individuals think and process information.
Biological Approach: Strongly on the nature side, it focuses on genetic inheritance, neurochemistry, and brain structure as determinants of behaviour. Evolutionary psychology within this approach also considers the role of natural selection.
Psychodynamic Approach: Interactionist but leans toward nature. Freud believed in innate drives and instincts (like the sexual and aggressive drives). However, he also stressed the importance of early experiences (nurture) in personality development.
Humanistic Psychology: Interactionist, acknowledging both nature and nurture. While individuals have an innate drive towards self-actualisation, their environment (such as conditions of worth and relationships) also influences development.
