Anatomy & Physiology Of Animals & Humans Flashcards
(920 cards)
1
Q
What is the classification of systems?
A
Cells → tissues → organs → organ system → organism
2
Q
What are the 4 different types of tissue in humans & animals
A
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
3
Q
What is a example of epithelial tissue?
A
Skin, surfaces of also organs
4
Q
What is the most fundamental function of epithelial tissue?
A
Physical protection
5
Q
What is the simple squamous & where is it typically found? & what does it do?
A
Type of epithelial tissue
alveoli, inner lining of blood vessels (endothelium), lining of the heart (endocardium)
Specialized in allowing movement of molecules (gases, nutrients & waste products) across the cell
Secretion of lubricating substances
Act as a barrier to prevent loss of fluid & electrolytes
6
Q
What is simple cuboidal? & where is it typically found? & what does it do?
A
Type of epithelial tissue
Nephron in the kidney, ducts & glands
Absorbtion & secretion of fluids
7
Q
What is simple columnar? & where is it typically found? & what does it do?
A
Type of epithelial tissue
Digestive system, bronchi, uterine tubes & uterus
Absorb & secrete
Can be ciliated
8
Q
What is stratified squamous? & where is it typically found? & what does it do?
A
Type of epithelial tissue
Skin, line of oesophagos, mouth & vagina
Protection, prevention of water loss
Can be keratinized
9
Q
What are all the functions of epithelial tissue?
A
Physical protection, absorption, sensation & secretion
10
Q
What is the epidermis?
A
The skin
11
Q
What is the main function of landerhond cell? (The skin)
A
Maintain immunity, decide immune response to pathogen coming through
12
Q
What is the main function of the Merkel cell? & which layer does it exist on (The skin)
A
Detect physical toch / receive sensation, the basal layer
13
Q
What are melanocytes? (the skin)
A
Pigment cells
14
Q
How many kinds of connective tissue is there & what are they called?
A
4, connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone & blood
15
Q
What are the 2 kinds of supportive connective tissue?
A
Cartilage & bone
16
Q
What is a mesenchyme?
A
A cell that develops into all types of connective tissue, the embryological stem cell
17
Q
What are the function of connective tissue?
A
Support, bind, storage, immune defence, transport & protection
18
Q
What are the 2 types of connective tissue proper?
A
Loose, dense
19
Q
What is areolor tissue?
A
Type of loose connective tissue that has all the different types of cells & fibers found in connective tissue
20
Q
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
A
Hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage & fibrocartilage
21
Q
What is the most common type of cartilage?
A
Hyaline cartilage
22
Q
Example of where hyeline cartilage can be found?
A
Hassle, trachea, connection of ribs to sternum
23
Q
What does elastin allow for and what kind of cartilage has a high number of them?
A
Elastic cartilage
24
Q
Is cartilage naturally repairable?
A
No has to be done through surgery
25
What does fibroblast do?
Lay down bone
26
What does fibroclast do?
Break down bone
27
What are the 3 kinds of muscle tissue?
Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
28
What is the function of skeletal muscle? Can we control it?
Locomotion/movement, yes it is voluntary
29
What does syncytinum mean? (cell of skeletal muscle)
Each cellular unit contains multiple nuclei
30
What is the function of smooth muscle & where are they? Can we control it?
Found in digestive tract & blood vessels, peristalses (prevents food from coming up, pushes it down). Involuntary
31
What is the function of cardiac muscle? Can we control it?
Pump blood, only heart, involuntary
32
What are the 3 types of muscle fibers?
Fast twitch, slow twitch & intermediate
33
What is the basic unit of the nervous system?
Neuron
34
What do the schwann's cells & myelin sheath do in a neuron?
Speed up transmission of signal
35
What at the 3 types of neurons?
Motor (efferent), sensory (afferent) & interneuron ( relay neuron)
36
How many bones are typically in the human body?
206
37
How many bones does the axial Skelton have?
80
38
How many bones are in the skull + associate bones?
29
39
How many bones in the thoracic cage?
25
40
How many bones in the vertebral column? How many are vertebrae's
26, 24
41
What are the region of spine/ vertebrae called?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar & coccygeal
42
How many bones in the appendicular skeleton? & what does it include?
Arms, legs, clavicle, scapula, hands & feet, 126
43
What is the basic functions of the frontal lobe?
Motor control, problem solving & speech
44
What is the basic functions of the parietal lobe?
Sensory & body orientation
45
What is the basic functions of the occipital lobe?
Sight
46
What is the basic functions of the cerebellum?
Balance & coordination
47
What is the basic functions of the brain stem?
Pulse, breathing, reflexes & involuntary functions keeping us alive
48
What is the basic functions of the temporal lobe?
Auditory, language, memory
49
What flows in the meninges? (Brain anatomy
Ceribal spinal fluid
50
What is the function of the corpus collosum? (brain anatomy)
Relaying information between the 2 sides of the brain in order to coordinate movement
51
What does the thalamus do? (Brain anatomy)
Redistributes the info from different parts of the brain
52
What is the function of the hypothalamus? (Brain anatomy )
Homeostatic responses, release hormones
53
What is the function of the pituitary gland? (Brain anatomy )
Release hormones based on signals from the hypothalamus
54
What are the functions of the right ventricle? ( Circulatory systems )
Pump deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery
55
Where does the deoxygenated blood go when pumped from the right ventricle? (Circulatory system)
Through the pulmonary artery to the lungs
56
Difference between artery & vein?
Artery carries oxygenated blood away from the heart & veins carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart
Arteries pump blood away from the heart & veins towards the heart
57
What is the structural difference between artery & vein?
The thickness of connective tissue & tunica media (smooth muscle & elastic fibers) & veins have one way valves
58
Which has higher blood flow, artery or vein?
Artery
59
What is the inner layer of the blood vessels?
Endothelium
60
What kind of tissue is Endothelium?
Connective tissue
61
What kind of blood vessel is responsible for slowing down the blood from the ateries?
Arterioles
62
Blood volume in males
5-6 L
63
Blood volume in females
4-5 L
64
How much of the total body mass does blood make up?
6-8%
65
How much of the extracellular fluid does blood make up?
20% ecf
66
How much of the blood does plasma make up?
55%
67
How much of the blood does formed elements make up? & what is it?
45%, buffy coat ( platelets & white blood cells) & red blood cells
68
Different name for red blood cells
Erythrocytes
69
Different name for white blood cells?
Lenkocytes
70
What is heart contraction called?
Systole
71
What is heart relaxation called?
Diastole
72
What are the valves between the atrium & ventricle in the heart called?
Av valve
73
What is the wall separating the two ventricles in the heart called?
Septum
74
Different names for the sa node & its function? (Heart)
Sinoatrial node / pacemaker, sets the electrical activity, where electrical activity in the heart begins
75
What is the regular heart beat without stimuli from the brain?
100 b/min
76
Resting heart rate with parasympathetic stimuli from the brain
60-70 b/min
77
Heart rate with sympathetic stimuli from the brain? (During exercise)
220 b/min
78
Where is the sa node located?
Right atrium
79
What is an ecg?
Electrocardiogram
80
What are the 2 heart sounds?
Lub ( s1) & dub ( s2)
81
How many Chambers in the human heart?
4
82
Which side is the tricuspid valve on? (Heart anatomy )
The Right
83
How much blood do the different chambers hold in comparison to eachother?
They all hold the same amount
84
What is the largest artery in the body?
The aorta
85
Which vessel has the highest blood pressure?
The aorta
86
How many layers does the heart have & what are they called?
3, endocardium, myocardium & pericardium
87
What are the 2 layers of the pericardium called? (Heart anatomy)
Visceral & parietal
88
What is the space between the 2 pericardial layers called?
Pericardial cavity
89
What is the coronary circulation?
What delivers blood to the lakes of the heart
90
What is tachycardia? (Heart)
Heart rate over 100 bpm
91
What is bradycardia? (Heart)
Heart rate under 60bpm
92
What is automaticity?
Something done involuntarily / un consciously, innate process
93
What makes the sounds of the heart?
The valves in the heart closing
94
What is the stroke volume?
Volume of blood pumped from the heart with each beat
95
How is the stroke volume determined?
End-diastolic volume - end-systolic volume = Sv
96
How is cardiac output determined?
Co = heart rate x stroke volume
97
What does cardiac output tell us?
Volume of blood pumped by the heart in one min
98
What is total peripheral resistance (Tpr)?
Total resistance blood faces when flowing through rescurature
99
What is vasodiacation? (Blood vessels)
Increase in blood vessel diameter
100
What is vasoconstriction? (Blood vessels)
Decrease in diameter of blood vessel
101
What is mean atrial pressure ( map )?
Average arterial pressure during one complete cordial cycle
102
How is mean arterial pressure calculated?
Map= cardiac output x total peripheral resistance
103
What is the central pore/ hole in the middle of the blood vessel called?
Lumen
104
What is a capillary? (Blood vessel)
Smallest diameter blood vessel, connect anterioles & vesicles, site of nutrient exchange
105
What is the one cellular layer that makes up capillaries? (Blood vessels)
Tunica intimate aka endothelium
106
What are fenestra? (Capillary blood vessels)
Small pores that allow for nutrients to enter capillaries more efficiently
107
What is a portal system? (Blood vessels)
When 2 capillary beds are connected Via portal vein
108
Do white blood cells/leukocytes contain a nucleus?
Yes
109
Do platelets contain a nucleus? (blood)
No
110
What is the main job of red blood cells/ erythrocytes?
Deliver oxygen
111
Which lung is the smallest & why?
The left lung. Because of the slight left placement of the heart
112
How many lobes does the right & left lung have?
Right has 3 & left 2
113
What is the tidal volume? (lung)
Amount of air going in & out during respiration
114
What are the 3 parts of the upper respiratory tract? Top to bottom
Nasal cavity, pharynx & larynx
115
What are the 3 parts of the lower respiratory tract? Top to bottom
Trachea, bronci, lungs
116
What are the 4 parts of the lungs? Top to bottom
Terminal bronchiole, respiratory bronchiole, alveolor duct & alveoli
117
Where in the lungs does gas exchange occur?
Alveoli (sometimes alveoli duct)
118
What are the 2 outer layers of the lungs called? & what is in between (start with inner layer)
Visceral pleura, cavity, parietal pleuron
119
What is the main driver of gas exchange ? (respiratory system)
Partial gas pressure causing diffusion
120
What part of the respiratory system has cartilage & goblet cells?
Trachea & bronchus
121
What 2 things are responsible for creating mucus?
Goblet cells & cilia
122
What part of the lung system has smooth muscle?
Trachea, bronchus & terminal bronchiole
123
What does the smooth muscle in the lung system do?
Reduce radius to avoid cold air getting to the alveoli
124
What carries oxygen in the blood & how many molecules?
Hemoglobin, 4 oxygen molecous per 1 hemoglobin
125
How is co2 transported in the blood?
Most is transported as hydrogen carbonate as it combines w/ water, some is carbamino- haemoglobin & very little as pure co2 in the solution
126
What is transpulmonary pressure?
PL (intrapulmonary, in the lung) -PIP (intrapleural pressure) = transpulmonary pressure
127
Steps of inspiration?
1. Diaphragm descend rib cage out/up, volume increase & pressure decrease
2. Interpleural pressure decrees
3. Atmospheric pressure >pip
4. Air comes inside lungs
5. Patm = pip
128
Steps of expiration?
1. Diaphragm rise, riscage descend, volume decrease & pressure increase
2. Pip > PATM
3. air flows out
4. Pip = Patm
129
What is the residual volume of the lung?
Air you can't breath out as the lung would collapse
130
What is the expiratory reserve volume of the lungs?
The air you can force out
131
What is inspiratory reserve volume of the lungs?
Max air you can breathe in
132
What is tidal volume of the lungs?
What you breath in & out normally
133
4 common heart diseases
Congenital heart diseases (from birth)
Myocardial infarction (heart attack)
Cardiac arrest (heart stops)
Heart failure (frail heart stops working)
134
6 common blood vessel diseases
Aneurysm (bulge in blood vessel which can burst)
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Hypotension (low blood pressure )
Strokes
Thrombosis (blood clots)
Arteriosclerosis
135
5 common blood diseases
Iron deficiency anemia
Aplastic anemia (not enough red blood cells)
Sickle cell disease
Lukemia (cancer in WBC )
Hemophilia ( genetic poor blood clotting )
136
What are the 3 major components of smoking that cause problems for health
Tar
Co
Nicotine
137
What does tar from smoking damage?
Respiratory system, obstructive lung disease & lung cancer
138
What does Co & nicotine from smoking damage?
The cardiovascular system, vastconstriction, hr & bp increase, blood supply goes down, risks of blood clotting increases
139
What charactirizes obstructive lung diseases
Less air flow, shortness of breath (exhaling is the problem), can lead to COPD & asthma
140
What charactirizes restrictive lung diseases
Decrease in long volume, difficult to inhale, stiffness in lung, lead to interstitial disease scoliosis & marked obesity
141
What are the 2 subdivisions of the central nervous system
Brain & spinal cord
142
What are the 2 major subdivision of the peripheral nervous system?
Autonomic nervous system & somatic nervous system
143
What are the 3 subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Parasympathetic & sympathetic & enteric
144
What are the two subdivisions of the somatic nervous system?
Sensory, motor
145
Which is voluntary ans or sns? (Nervous systems)
Ans
146
What is the "insulation " of the neuron?
Schwann cells
147
What is the gaps between myelin sheaths in a neuron called?
Nodes of ranvier
148
Where is the cell body of a motor neuron located?
Central nervous system
149
Where does the motor neuron send signals from & to?
CNs → effector
150
Where does the sensory neuron send signals from & to?
Receptors→ CNS
151
Where does the inter neuron send signals from & to?
Sensory ⇒ motor
152
Where is the cell body on the sensory & inter neuron located?
On the axon
153
What differentiates the structure of the inter & sensory neuron?
Inter has short axons making it circular in a sense
154
What is the neutron coming off the cns called? (Relay centers of the ans )
Pre-ganglionic (myelinated )
155
What is the neutron coming off the autonomic ganglion called? (Relay centers of the ans )
Postganglionic (unmyelinated)
156
Where does the sns come from?(nervous systems)
The spine, thoracic vertebra, t1-t12
157
Where does the pns come from?(nervous systems)
The brain stem ( & pelvis)
158
Which is the most important nerve in the pns?
Cranial nerve 10, vagus nerve
159
Which has long preganglionic fibers & short postganglionic fibers? (Pns or sns)
Pns
160
Which has short preganglionic fibers & long postganglionic fibers? (Pns or sns)
Sns
161
What is the resting potential at? & what mechanism is used to keep it there? (ns)
-70 mv, the sodium potassium pump
162
How many mv has to be crossed for an action potential to occur?( synapse)
-50 mv
163
What does the all-or- none law state? (Synapse)
If the threshold of -50 mv is met the stimulated fibre will always give maximal response & electrical impulse is produced. But if the -50mv is not get there will be no impulse
164
How many mv does the current go to in synapse?
+30 mv
165
What is the prerequisite for an action potential to occur? (Synapse)
The axon membrane potential must be depolarized & the electrical stimulus must be strong enough that it reaches above - 50 mv
166
What happens during depolirazation? (Synapse)
Voltage gated channels open & sodium flows down to the lower concentration on the inside of the cell
167
What happens during repolirization? (Synapse)
Sodium voltage gated channels close when 30 mv is reached & the potassium voltage gated channels open & the potassium goes down its gradient & flows to the outside of the cell
168
What is hyperrepolarization? (Synapse)
When there is an over shoot & one cell potential goes below -70 mv
169
Will the size of the action potential change through the axon or intensity of stimulus?
No, size & intensity is constant
170
What makes the action potential differ between a strong & weak stimulus?
Frequency
171
What does speed of transmission in a neuron depend on?
Myelination, diameter of axon (lower resistance with higher diameter)
172
What is a synapse?
Junction between 2 nerve cells
173
What makes up straiations on skeletal muscle?
The Sarcomere which is made up of myosin (which is thick) & actin (which is thin) filaments
174
What happens during muscle contraction? What shrinks, is constant & moves?
M line & A band are constant
I band & h band shrink
Z lines move closer to M lines
175
What is a sacomere? ( skeletal muscle)
Single unit of a contractile muscle
176
What are the 4 sources of ATP in skeletal muscle?
Creatine phosphate ⇒ ATP
ATP
Aerobic respiration
Lactate fermentation
177
Where are the rods & cones located in the eye?
The retina, big cluster on the focal point
178
Do the cornea & conjunctiva have vascular supply?
No
179
What is Lens adjustment in the eye called?
Accommodation
180
When is the cillary muscle relaxed? (the eye)
When looking at something far away
181
When can the lens precive light from a far distance?
When it is flat due to elongated suspensory ligaments
182
When can the lens precive light from a close distance?
When the suspensory ligaments are slack due to the cilary muscle being contracted & the Lens is more round/condensed
183
When is the pupil small?
When in light
184
When is the pupil dilated?
When in dark
185
What is the change in size of pupil considered? & what nerves are tested
A reflex, cranial nerves
186
What are other than light effects on the pupil?
Distance of objects we're looking at, chemical stimulants like excitement or stress
187
What is the pupillary reflex? (The eye) & what is it controlled by?
What controls dilation & constriction of the pupil, the autonomic nervous system
188
Which muscle causes constriction of the pupil? & what nervous system is it controlled by?
Sphincter pupillae, parasympathetic nervous system
189
Which muscle causes dilation of the pupil? & what nervous system is it controlled by?
Dilator pupillae, sympathetic nervous system
190
What controls Color? Rods or cones?
Cones
191
Which is there more of? Rods or cones?
Rods
192
What is scotopic vision? & what controls it?
Low light levels, rods
193
What is photopic vision? & what controls it?
Higher light levels, cones
194
What is the area of fovea / focal point? What is it responsible for
Small part of the retina which is responsible for high-acuity vision
195
Where is a high concentration of cones found in the eye?
The fovea
196
What are the 3 types of cones? & what differentiates them?
L, depicts long wavelength, red light
M, depicts middle wavelength, green light
S, depicts short wavelength, blue light
197
What kind of pigment is in cones?
Iodiopsin pigment
198
What kind of pigment is in cones?
Rhodopsin pigment
199
What vitamin is rhodopsin pigment contain & what is it responsible for?
Vitamin A, night vision
200
Which is more sensitive to light, rods or cones? & why
Rods, because it is responsible for night vision
201
How is the rhodopsin pigment able to create night vision?
Breaks the light into 2
202
What part of the brain will precive the right field of view?
Left side
203
What part of the brain will precive the left field of view?
Right side
204
Which eye takes information from the right field of view?
Both eyes take info from both sides & sends it to the opposite side of the brain
205
What happens when the immune system attacks self cells?
Autoimmune diseases
206
How does the immune system detect self cells?
Glycoproteins on the surface of the self cells
207
What is the innate immune system?
What responds immediately when an infection occurs
208
What activates the adaptive immune system?
The innate immune system
209
Is it the innate or adaptive immune system that creates memory cells?
The adaptive
210
What is the big difference between innate & adaptive immune system?
Adaptive crates a specific attack on the pathogen where the innate has the same response no matter what kind of pathogen is present
211
What are the 2 types of cells in the immune system?
The lymphoid cells & the myeloid cells
212
What are the 3 types of cells created from pre t-cells?
Memory t-cell
Cytotoxic t-cell
Helper t-cell
213
What are the 2 types of cells created from pre B-cells?
Memory b-cells
Plasma
214
What are the 2 kinds of cells in the immune system?
Phagocytes & lymphocytes
215
What are phagocytes?
Cells that do phagocytosis
216
Where are phagocytes produced & stored?
Bone marrow
217
What are phagocytes major functions?
Remove dead cells & invasive microorganisms, they are scavenges
218
What are the 2 Major types of phagocytes?
Neutrophils & macrophages
219
How much of white blood cells do neutrophils make up?
60%
220
What do neutrophils do?
Patrol the body & viciously attack & rapidly kill all pathogens
221
Do neutrophils have a short or long life span?
Short
222
Where are macrophages originally made & as what?
In bone marrow as monocytes
223
When do monocytes turn into macrophages?
When they leave the blood to settle in organs
224
Where do macrophages typically reside?
Organs (lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, lymph)
225
Do macrophages have a long or short life span?
Long
226
How do macrophages play a role in initiating the adaptive immune response?
They cut pathogens a display their antigens or little pieces of it on their surfaces which then can be recognized by the lymphocytes
227
What do cells release when they a under attack?
Histamine
228
What are the first responders in the immune system which a attracted by histamine?
Neutrophils
229
What is neutrophils attraction to histamine?
Chemotaxis
230
What do neutrophils perform on pathogens?
Endocytosis ⇒ phagocytosis
231
What happens when neutrophils have engulfed pathogen?
It releases digestive enzymes like proteases & then kill it self & becomes pus
232
What distinguish lymphocytes from phagocytes?
They are small but have a larger nucleus
233
What are the 2 important types of lymphocytes?
B & t cells
234
Where are B&t cells produced?
Bone marrow
235
What do lymphocytes have to be in order to be able to perform responses of the adaptive immune system?
Mature
236
Where do b&t cells circulate after they are mature?
Blood & lymph
237
Where do b-cells mature?
Bone marrow
238
Where do t-cells mature?
Thymus which is the uni of t-cells as it teaches them how to recognize self & non-self
239
How many % of the t-cells that enter the thymus will mature?
2%, rest 98% are killed
240
Where a b-cells mainly concentrated?
Lymph & spleen
241
Why is our immune response not as good after puberty aka why does it decline?
The thymus grows 2x the size from birth to puberty & then after puberty it shrinks
242
What are histamine released by?
The healthy cells when they are killed
243
What it is called when neutrophils kill themselves?
Apoptosis
244
What controls how much innate immune response is happening?
Macrophages
245
What is the purpose of inflammatory responses?
To restrict infection to an area& stop the spreed
246
What are some areas where inflammation is very limited or absent?
Brain, spinal cord, part of the eyes & testicles
247
What calls for inflammation to happen?
Cells dying unnaturally
Mast cells which release histamine & cytokines, cytokines make blood vessels dislate thus increase blood flow & more them more permable
248
What does the dendritic cell do?
Connects the innate & adaptive immune system by taking shapshots of the battle field and part of the bacteria’s glycoproteins & delivers it to the adaptive immune system (t-cells) using the lymphatic system
249
What activates the t-cells?
The dendritic cells
250
What does the helper t-cell do?
Activates b-cells & cytotoxic t-cells using cytokines
251
What does antibodies do?
Help the immune cells ( neutrophils & macrophages) detect the enemies by attaching to them & acting as a marker
252
What happens to the helper t-cells if the battle is won?
They become memory t-cells
253
What activates b-cells?
T-cells
254
What does b- cell activation lead to?
Production of plasma cells
255
What does plasma calls do?
Produce specialized antibodies
256
How many salivary glands are in the mouth?
3
257
What are the structures of the oral cavity?
Uvula, tongue, pharynx & salivary glands
258
What are the 3 salivary glands called?
Parotid, sublingual, submandibular
259
What is the connection between mouth & stomach called?
Esophagus
260
What are the accessory organs? (Digestive system)
Liver, gall bladder & pancreas
261
Different name for big intestine
Colon
262
What a the 3 main parts of the colon in order from what the food passes through first to last
Ascending, transverse, descending
263
What is the connection between the stomach & esophagus called?
Esophageal sphincter
264
How many muscle layers are in the stomach?
3
265
What are the folds of the stomach called?
Rugae
266
What is the exist of the stomach called?
Pyloric sphincter
267
What is regurgitation?
Spitting up of food without nausea, forceful contractions of the smooth muscle in esophagus or stomach pushing the food backwards
268
What is peristalsis?
Muscle contractions propagating food down digestive tract
269
What is the role of the liver in the digestive system?
Bile & bile salt production for emulsification of fats
270
What is the function of the gall bladder
Store & release bile
271
What is the function of the pancreas?
Secret pancreatic juices into small intestine to buffer the stomach acid
272
What are the 3 main types of macro molecules that come through our body to be digested
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats)
273
What are carbohydrates broken down into in our digestive system?
Monosaccharides
274
What are lipids broken down into in our digestive system?
Glycerol & fatty acids
275
What are proteins broken down into in our digestive system?
Simpler proteins/ peptides & in the very end amino acids
276
What are the 2 types of digestion happening in the mouth?
Mechanical & chemical
277
What is the contents of saliva? (6 parts)
99% h20, electrolytes, mucus, Iga, enzymes & lysozymes
278
What releases gastric juices in the stomach
Gastric glands
279
What is the mix between gastric juices & food called?
Chyme
280
Which enzyme is both released & activated in the stomach? & what does is break down?
Pepsis enzyme, proteins into peptides
281
What makes the stomach acid?
HCI
282
What makes up the gastric juices? (4 components)
Mucus, pepsin enzyme,hcl, lipase
283
Where does the majority of the breaking down of molecules happen in the digestive system?
Small intestine
284
What is the acidity of the chyme when it is made in the stomach?
2ph
285
What is the ph raised to by sodium bicarbonate when entering the small intestine?
8ph
286
What are enterocytes?( small intestine )
Villi on the villi in small intestine which digests absorbs
287
Does fat go through the blood system?
No it is hydrophobic, goes through lymphatic system
288
Are there any enzymes in the colon?
No
289
What is the primary function of the colon?
Water absorption
290
What is the fuse that connects the kidney to the bladder called?
Ureter
291
What is the definition of excretion?
Removal of metabolic waste
292
What metabolic waste does the body need to remove? & how are they removed?
Co2 (removed through lungs ), urea (removed through kidneys )
293
Where is urea produced?
Liver
294
How is urea transported from liver to kidney?
Blood plasma
295
What makes up urine?
Urea & water
296
What is deamination?
Removal of an amine (nh2) group
297
Where are nephrons found?
Kidneys
298
Where in the nephron does ultra filtration take place?
Bowmans capsule
299
What is osmoregulation?
Control of water in the body
300
What are the 3 body parts involved with osmoregulation?
Kidneys, hypothalamus & pituitary gland
301
Where are the osmoreseptors?
In the hypothalamus
302
What does ADH increase? (Osmoregulation)
Absorption of water in the nephron, loop of henle & collecting duct
303
How is glucose transported & stored in the body?
As glycogen
304
What are the 2 hormones that control glucose in the body?
Glucagon & insulin
305
Where is the homeostatic control of glucose?
Pancreas
306
What happens when glucose levels are low?
Alpha & beta cells detect the low levels & glucagon will be released from the alpha cells at a higher rate and insulin from the beta cells at a lower rate, liver will break down glycogen to glucose, uptake of glucose in the liver/muscle / fat will be lower
307
What happens when glucose levels are high?
Alpha a beta cells detect it, glucagon release will be decreased & insulin release increased, liver will not convert glycogen to glucose as fast & liver/musclel/fat will increase intake of glucose as response to insulin
308
What is the only organ with receptor for glucagon?
Liver
309
What is the endocrine system?
Hormones in body regulating biological processes
310
What is the response time on the endocrine & nervous systems
Endocrine is slow but inexpensive in energy
Nervous is fast but expensive in energy
311
What are glands?
Group of cells that produce & secrete 1 or more substance, typically hormones
312
What are the 2 types of glands in the body?
Exocrine glands & endocrine glands
313
Where are the hormones from glands secreted into?
The blood directly (no ducts )
314
Definition of hormones
Cell signalling molecules
315
2 main types of hormones
Water soluable & lipid soluable
316
What are water soluable hormones made up of?
Peptides (proteins)
317
What are lipid soluable hormones made up of?
Steroid
318
What organs are involved in the menstrual cycle?
Ovary & uterine, anterior pituitary gland
319
What hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle?
Estrogen & progesterone released by ovary & follicle stimulating hormone (Fsh) & luteinising hormone (lh) released by anterior pituitary gland
320
How long is the menstrual cycle?
28 days
321
What marks the beginning of the menstrual cycle?
The onset of menstruation
322
How long does menstruation on average last?
4-8 days
323
What cycle produces the egg/gamete in a female?
The ovarian cycle
324
When does ovulation typically happen?
Day 14 of the menstrual cycle
325
What is the inner lining of the uterus called?
Endometrium
326
What is ventilation?
Process of both exhalation & inhalation
327
What processes do antibiotics block?
Processes that occur in prokaryotic cells
328
Do antibiotics effect human cellular processes?
No
329
What are muscles that work in pairs to move body parts in opposite directions called?
Antagonistic muscles
330
What is the primary reason ph is controlled so tightly in humans?
To prevent changes in electrical charge in polypeptide chains
331
Which bio molecule does the body use for long term storage?
Lipids (fats)
332
Which bio molecule does the body use for short term energy?
Carbs
333
Fancy word for chewing
Mastication
334
Which important enzyme does saliva contain & what does it break down?
Amylase, breaks down starch & glycogen
335
Is saliva acidic or basic?
Slightly acidic
336
What is propulsion?
When the food goes down the esophagus
337
What does hcI do in the stomach?
Brake down food & turns pepsinogen into pepsin
338
What does pepsin break down?
Protein into smaller peptides
339
How many sphincters does the stomach have?
2
340
How much can the stomach hold?
2-4 L
341
What does the outer layer of mucosal cells do for the stomach?
Protects it from acidity & enzymes so it doesn't digest itself
342
Where are the gastric glands?
Inside the stomach
343
Which secretory cells do the gastric glands contain?
Parietal cells: release Hcl (ph 1.5)
Chef cells: release pepsinogen (turns into pepsin via Hcl, it is a protease)
344
2 types of cells in gastric glands
Secretory cells & enteroendoctine cells ( regulatory cells)
345
What type of cell are g-cells?
Enteroendocrine cells
346
What do g-cells do? ( Gastric glands )
Secrete gastrin (stimulates secretion of gastric juice)
347
What is the first part of the small intestine called?
Duodenum
348
What is the duodenum the site for?
Chemical digestion
349
What does the pancreas secrete into the duodenum ? ( 5 )
Bicarbonate, trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase & lipase
350
What does the gallbladder secrete into the duodenum?
Bile
351
What does the liver secrete into the duodenum?
Bilirubin
352
What 4 enzymes does the duodenum secrete?
Sucrose, lactase, maltase & various peptidases
353
What does the jejunum have to increase its surface area?
Villi & microvilli
354
What is the last part of the small intestine?
Ileum
355
Where in the digestive system is water absorbed?
Small intestine
356
3 sections of the small intestine & their main role?
Duodenum: site for chemical digestion
Jejunum: site for majority of absorption
Ileum: site for vitamin absorption
357
What enzymes does the duodenum secrete?
Sucrose
Lactase
Maltase
Peptidases
358
2 main roles of bile
Works like a detergent: fatty glosses are made smaller by not grouping together due to bile
Neutrelize excess stomach acid
359
Which enzymes does the pancreas secrete into the duodenum?
Bicarbonate (hco3)
Trypsinogen
Chymotrypsinogen
Amylase
Lipase
Peptidases
Nucleases
360
What does Bicarbonate do in the duodenum?
Neutralizes chyme to protect intestines
361
What does trypsinogen become & what does it do?
Trypsin, breaks down proteins into amino acids
362
What does chymotrypsinogen become & what does it do?
Chymotrypsin, breaks down proteins into amino acids
363
What does the liver secrete directly into the duodenum?
Bilirubin, breakdown product of red blood cells that needs to be secreted. Gives stool its Color
364
Route of absorption in the jejunum & ileum
Microvilli → enterocyte → blood stream inside villi
365
What is passively absorbed in the jejunum & ileum?
Fructose
366
What need energy to be absorbed (active absorption) in the jejunum & ileum?
Amino acids
Glucose
Small peptides
Vitamins
367
How are lipids transported in the blood & why?
They are hydrophobic so they would from clots so they are transported in lipoprotein
368
Steps of how lipids are broken down & absorbed in the body /blood (4)
Broken down into fatty acids & glycerol
Absorbed by enterocytes
Converted into triglycerides
Combined with protein, cholesterol & phospholipids to form chylomicrons (a lipoprotein) which can travel in the blood
369
When does chyme become faeces?
When it travels through the iliosaecal valve into the colon
370
What helps to brake down certain remaining nutrients in the colon?
Bacteria
371
What does undigested fibres do in the colon?
Ferment & help stool pass
372
What are absorbed in the colon?
Vitamins, short fatty acids, water & ions
373
What is pulmonary ventilation?
Movement of air in & out of lungs
374
What is external respiration (expiration)?
Breathing out
375
What is internal respiration (inspiration)?
Breathing in
376
Why do we need to breathe?
We are too big to rely solely on passive diffusion & we need it to remove o2
377
What 3 things does the trachea a bronchi contain?
Goblet cells
Cilia
Cartilage
378
What do goblet cells do?
Secrete mucus keeping the mucus membrane protected/lubricated
379
What are cilia?
Whip like appendages to cells that allow for the removal of dirt from the airways
380
What does cartilage do is the respiratory system?
They are round rings around the tubes to keep the airway from collapsing during inspiration
381
What does Dalton’s law state?
Total pressure = partial pressure + partial pressure …+ partial pressure
382
Where does air travel from & to?
High partial pressure → low partial pressure
383
What 5 things happen during inspiration?
Diaphragm contracts (goes down)
Intercostal muscles constrict
Lungs expand (increase in volume)
Thorax rises/moves outward
Partial pressure in lungs decrease allowing air in
384
What 5 things happen during expiration?
Diaphragm relaxes (goes upward )
Intercostal muscles relax
Lungs contract
Thorax sinks/moves inward
Partial pressure in lungs increase allowing air out
385
What is transported in blood?
Gases: O2, Co2 etc
Nutrients: glucose, vitamins etc
Hormones: adrenaline, noradrenaline etc (all hormones)
Heat
Waste
386
What is the pulmonary circuit?
Blood flowing between heart & lungs
387
What is the systemic circuit?
Blood flow between heart & rest of the body
388
Which is the stronger pump, atria or ventricles?
Ventricles
389
Names of the 2 atrial ventricular (av) valves?
Tricuspid valve & bicuspid/mitral valve
390
When are the 2 atrial ventricular (av) valves open / closed?
Open: diastole
Closed: systole
391
Names of the 2 semilunar valves?
Aortic Valve
Pulmonary valve
392
When are the semilunar valves open / closed?
Open: systole
Closed: diastole
393
What is systole?
Blood being pumped out of the ventricles to the body
394
What is diastole?
Blood being pumped out of the atrium into the ventricle
395
How does the heart get oxygen?
Through the coronary arteries
396
Does the heart need the nervous system to beat?
No it is autorhytmic
397
What harmonizes the heart?
Sino atrial (SA) node & atrioventricular (av) node
398
Steps of heart beat (4)
Sa node sends depolarization (positive) signal through the atria & they contract
Av node delays signals so atria empties first
Bundle of his fibers pass signals to heart apex
Signal spread throughout the ventricles through purkinje fibers I they connect
399
What kind of blood vessels have valves?
Veins
400
What kind of blood vessels have valves?
Veins
401
What do arteries branch into?
Arterioles
402
What smaller blood vessel does a vein come from?
VenuIes
403
Why is there higher pressure in arteries?
Because the come directly from the heart
404
What kind of blood vessel has the highest pressure?
Arteries
405
Which type of blood vessel is the strongest?
Arteries
406
Where in the circulatory system is pressure the lowest?
Vena cava
407
Rank velocity in different blood vessels from highest to lowest
Arteries
Veins
Venules & arterioles
Capillaries
408
Rank cross sectional area in different blood vessels from highest to lowest
Capillaries
Venules & arterioles
Veins & arteries
409
Where are the kidneys located?
Just under the liver
410
In rough terms what does the liver do?
Cleans blood & sends waste to digestive & urinary system
411
What does the liver turn ammonia into?
Urea
412
How is urea transported from the liver to the kidneys?
Via blood
413
Where is urea produced?
Liver
414
4 main functions of the urinary system
Regulates water volume & ion concentration
Regulates ph
Removes toxins
Regulates blood pressure & red blood cell production
415
How does blood enter the kidney?
Large renal arteries
416
How does deoxygenated blood leave the kidney?
Large renal vein
417
3 layers of kidneys from outer to inner
Renal cortex
Renal medulla
Renal pelvis
418
Where in the kidneys is the urine found?
Renal pelvis
419
What is the functional unit of the kidneys?
The nephron
420
Reabsorption in the kidneys pathway
Out of nephron → into interstitial fluid → into the blood
421
Secretion in the kidneys pathway
From blood → interstitial fluid → into nephron
422
What enters the bowman's capsule from the blood? (5)
H2o
Ions
Glucose
Urea
Amino acids
423
What gets reabsorped from the proximal convoluted tubule in the nephron to the blood?
Majority of NaCI
Majority of H20
Majority of k+ (calcium ions)
Vast majority of bicarbonate ions (hco3)
Only some of the urea
All amino acids & glucose
424
What gets secret from the blood to the proximal convoluted tubule?
NH3 ( ammonia )
Toxins & drugs
425
Which layer of the kidneys does the loop of henle decent into?
The medulla (which is salty)
426
What happens in the loop of henle?
Water leaves passively in the descending limb as it wants to go to the salty medulla
Filtrate is the very salty & NaCl will then leave passively in the thin ascending limb & actively in the thick ascending limb
427
What does the hormone aldosterone regulate?
Blood pressure
428
What happens in the distal convoluted tubule?
Aldosterone is present, NaCl, hco3- & small amount of water is reabsorped & k+ & H+ is secreted
429
What does adh stand for? (It's a hormone)
Anti-diaretic hormone
430
What does adh do in the collecting duct?
Forms aquaphorins, allowing water to leave
431
What is reabsorped in the collecting duct?
Water, NaCl & urea (which can be secreted back into the loop of henle
432
When is insulin secreted?
When blood glucose levels rise
433
What organ detects a rise in blood glucose levels?
Pancreas
434
What produces & secretes insulin?
Pancreas, beta cells of the pancreas secretes insulin
435
What receive insulin when it is secreted what effect does it have?
The cells receive insulin which causes them to take up the glucose making the blood glucose levels fall
436
What kind of hormone is insulin?
Peptide hormone (protein)
437
3 types of hormones
Peptide hormones (Proteins)
Amine hormones (1 amino acid)
Steroid hormones (lipids)
438
What is the opposite to the insulin pathway?
Glucagon
439
What detects that blood glucose levels fall?
Pancreas
440
What produces & secretes glycogen?
Alpha cells of the pancreas
441
Where does glucagon go & why?
To the liver where glycogen is stored & broken down into glucose
442
What is the effect of glucagon?
Blood glucose levels rise
443
What kind of hormones are glucagon ?
Peptide hormone
444
Different name for adrenaline
Epinephrine
445
What detects a threat prior to the release of adrenaline?
Sensory organs
446
Where are the adrenal glands located?
Above the kidneys
447
What sends a nerve impulse to the adrenal medulla after receiving signal from the sensory organs?
Hypothalamus
448
What releases & produces adrenaline
Adrenal medulla
449
What kind of hormone is adrenaline?
Amine hormone
450
What does adrenaline do?
Depends on what cell receives it
Blood vessels to vital organs dislate & constrict to non-vital organs
Liver turns glucagon into glucose
Cardiac muscles contract faster
451
What is released as the same time as adrenaline & has the exact same process & effect?
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
452
What is released by the hypothalamus after sensory neurons detect stress & where is it released to?
Crh: corticotropin releasing hormone which is released to the anterior pituitary gland
453
What happens when the anterior pituitary gland receives Crh?
It releases Acth (adrenocorticotropic hormone) to the adrenal cortex
454
What does the adrenal cortex secrete when receiving ACTH & where does it go ? (2)
Glucocorticoids (such as cortisol) → body cells
Mineral Corticoids (such as aldosterone) → kidney: distal convoluted tubule
455
What does a tropic hormone do?
Activate another gland to release hormones
456
What kind of hormones are cortisol & aldosterone?
Steroid hormones
457
What effects does cortisol have?
Metabolic effect: breaks protein/lipids into glucose
Anti-infanmatory effect
458
What effects does aldosterone have?
Facilitates reabsorption of Na+ & secretion of K+ in the distal convoluted tubule
This increase blood volume & this blood pressie
459
What is t3 & t4 hormone also called?
Thyroid hormone
460
How is thyroid hormone regulated?
Negative feedback, so if levels are low it will be detected & rectified
461
What detects low levels of t3/t4? & what is released I to where?
The hypothalamus detects low levels & secrets thyrotropin releasing hormone (trh) to the anterior pituitary gland
462
What does the anterior pituitary gland secrete when receiving Trh & to where?
Secretes thyroid stimulating hormone (tsh) to the thyroid
463
What hormone does the thyroid release?
Thyroid hormone (t3/t4)
464
When does the hypothalamus stop releasing trh?
When it detects thyroid hormones have been released into the blood
465
What kind of hormone is t3/t4?
Amine hormones, they need iodine to be produced & the lack of it causes goitre (enlargement of thyroid gland)
466
What causes goitre? (Enlargement of thyroid)
Lack of iodine so no thyroid hormone is produced & released stopping the negative feedback loop making the hypothalamus continue secretion of Trh to the anterior pituitary gland which then continues to release & filling the thyroid with tsh
467
What kinds of hormones are tsh & trh?
Peptide hormones
468
What are the effects of thyroid hormone?
Increase metabolism, maintains normal blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone & digestive & reproductive functions
469
Pathway of Adh (vasopressin)
Hypothalamus detects trigger (low water level: high blood osmolarity, low blood volume & pressure, presence of angiotensin ll ) → posterior pituitary gland → adh → collecting duct → increased water retention
470
What produces ADH?
Hypothalamus
471
What secretes ADH?
Posterior pituitary gland
472
What kind of hormone is ADh?
Peptide hormone
473
What kind of hormone are estrogen & progesterone?
Steroid
474
What does low estrogen do?
Inhibits anterior pituitary gland from releasing Lh (Lutinizing hormone )
Stimulates fsh
475
How long does the menstrual cycle typically last?
28 days
476
Which hormones trigger ovulation?
Lh ( & estrogen)
477
Which hormones spike for ovulation happen?
Lh & estrogen
478
What happens when follicles are stimulated?
Estrogen will increase
479
What does progesterone do?
Stimulates endometrial growth
Inhibits gnrh
480
What is the vitreous humour? (Eye anatomy)
Clear gel
Helps support shape & transmit light to the retina
481
What is the cornea? (Eye anatomy)
Transparent layer
Main function: refract (bend) light
482
What is the sclera? (Eye anatomy)
White part of eye
Tough protective covering
Connected to muscles that control the eye
483
What is the lens? (Eye anatomy)
Focuses light onto retina by changing shape
484
What is the anterior chamber/aqueous humour? (Eye anatomy)
Transparent water-like fluid, various roles
485
What is the iris? (Eye anatomy)
Colored part, controls the pupil
486
What is the retina? (Eye anatomy)
Location of photoreceptor cells
487
What is the pupil? (Eye anatomy)
Black hole in the middle
Permits light to hit retina
488
What is the optic nerve? (Eye anatomy)
Sends signal from eye to brain
489
Are there any rods in the fovea?
No only cones
490
What is the choroid? (Eye anatomy)
Filled with blood vessel, provides oxygen & nutrients to the retina
491
Photoreceptor cells
Rods & cones
492
What is rhodopsin & where is it found?
Light absorbing pigment, in rods
493
Where are rods found & what do they connect to?
Throughout the retina except for fovea
Many rods connect to a single ganglion cell (single rod does not produce much detail)
494
Where are cones found & what do they connect to?
The fovea
Each cone connects to its own ganglion cell allowing for very fine detail
495
What is photopsin?
Light absorbing pigment found in cones
496
Name for transduction of light
Phototransduction
497
What allows the eye to convert light into a signal?
Retinal found in rhodopsin & photopsin
498
What 2 things do rhodopsin & photopsin contain?
Opsin: a membrane protein
Retinal: light absorbing molecule
499
What happens in the rod when its dark? Signal pathway
Rod is turned on
Retinal is in cis (bent) form
When light hits the retinal changes to trans (straight) form
Rhodopsin activates, causing cascade event
Na+ channels in photoreceptor cell close, hyperpolarizing. Rod turns off & bipolar cell turns on
Signal passes to ganglion → optic nerve → brain
500
What is a chromosomal mutation?
Large scale change on the chromosome
Entire portions are affect, not just a single gene/ protein
501
4 types of chromosomal mutations
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Translocation
502
What is the chromosomal mutation deletion?
Macro-region of chromosome is deleted
Can remone 100s to 1000s of genes/regulatory regions
Phenotypic changes & genetic disorders are likely
503
What is the chromosomal mutation duplication?
Marro-region of chromosome is duplicated
Extra genetic material
May acquire new functions
Imbalances & genetic disorders can occur
504
What is the chromosomal mutation inversion?
Macro-region of chromosome is rearranged
Segment brakes off & reattaches in reverse orientation
Can disrupt gene order & alter gene regulation
Can effect chromosome pairing during meiosis
505
What is the chromosomal mutation translocation?
Macro-region of chromosome is transferred to another
506
What are the 2 types of the chromosomal mutation translocation?
Reciprocal translocation: exchange of segment between 2 non-homologous chromosomes
Robertsonian translocation: entire chromosome has attached to another chromosome
507
What is the chromosomal mutation insertion?
Portion of one chromosome has been taken from its normal place & inserted into another chromosome
508
What are genomic mutations?
Mutation that change the number of chromosomes
509
2 types of genomic mutation
Polyploidy
Aneuploidy
510
Different name for nerve cells
Nurons
511
What do neurons contain?
They are cells so they have organelles like nucleus, mitochondria, er etc
512
What makes neurons different from typical cells?
Don't usually undergo mitosis & are long & skinny
513
Definition of "nerve"
A bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system
Neurons+ other tissues & vessels = nerves
514
What is a ganglion?
Group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system
515
What is the cell body of the neuron called?
Soma
516
Where in a neuron is the action potential initiated?
In the axon hillock
517
Where is the only place the Schwann cells work?
Pheriphial nervous system
518
What create the myelin sheaths in the peripheral nervous system & central nervous system?
PNs: Schwann cells
Cns: oligodendrocytes
519
What facilitates communication between neurons?
Neurotransmitters
520
4 types of neurons classified by morphology
Unipolar : 1 dendrite
Bipolar : 2 dendrites
Multipolar : multiple dendrites
Pseudo-unipolar : 1 dendrite that splits into 2
521
Can neuros be classified by different types of neurotransmitters?
Yes
522
What are glia cells?
Supporting cells in the nervous system
523
What do glia cells do?
Depends on which type
They can create myelin, support neurons, modulate communication & homeostasis
524
Do glia cells transmit signals?
No, okay neurons do that
525
Which one is there more of neurons or glia cells?
10 times as many glia cells
526
Types of glia cells in the cns?
Oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia & astrocytes
527
What myelinate axons in the Cns?
The glia cell oligodendrocytes
One can myelinate many & one axons can be myelinated by many
528
What glia cells produce cerebrospinal fluid?
Ependymal cells
529
What glia cells line the ventricular system of the brain & Central canal of the spinal chord in the cns?
Ependymal cells
530
Which glia cells form the innate immune defence in the Cns?
Microglia
531
What do the glia cells astrocytes do in the cns?
Many roles
Form blood brain barrier
Regulate blood flow
Provide nutrients to neurons
Help with brain & spinal chord repair
Provide structural support for synapses
532
Types of glia cells in the pns
Schwann cells & satellite cells
533
How many axons do one Schwann cell myelinate?
1
534
What do the glia cells called satellite cells do in the pns ?
Provide structural support & nutrients to neurons
535
Difference between Schwann cells & oligodendrocytes?
Schwann cells are in the pns & 1 only myelinate 1
Oligodendrocytes are in the cns & 1 can myelinate many & many can myelinate 1
536
What do neurons pass information to?
Other neurons
Muscles
Brain
Glands
537
How do neurons pass information?
Transmitting signals ( an action potential)
538
How do neurons transmit a signal?
Through charged ions (not electrons)
539
What are the features of a neuron at rest?
Polarized with a voltage of -70 mv due to imbalance in ions
Salty banana: more Na+ outside, more k+ inside (3:2) → outside is more positive → gives the resting membrane potential of -70 mv
540
How is the resting membrane potential difference maintained at -70mv?
The sodium/potassium pump which uses ATP to pump 3 Na+ out & bring 2 K+ in
541
Is the axon membrane permeable or impermeable to ions?
Impermeable which maintained ion gradients
542
What happens when a neuron is excited?
Neurotransmitters from a connecting neuron binds to neuron
Cation channels open & the flow in (positive charge)
Neuron becomes depolarises, membrane potential less negative
If membrane potential reaches -55 mv an action potential occurs
543
What is an action potential?
Depolarization which spreads across the entire axon making inside briefly more positive
544
How does the depolarization spread from the axon hillock through the axon?
At -55 mv the Na+ channels open, meaning Na+ flows in making the potential difference even less negative
Since Na+ are positive they repeal each other
→ this spreads them outward along the axon, which depolarizes in a downstream direction
→ thus more Na+ channels open downstream & the action potential can travel the length of the axon
545
What is the membrane potential when the sodium has flown in?
+30 mv
546
What happens when the membrane potential of a neuron is +30 mv?
Sodium channels inactive allowing the signal to only go in one direction
The potassium channels open & potassium flows out making the membrane more negative again
547
What is the undershoot of a neuron?
When the membrane potential goes more negative then -70 mv
548
What is a depolarization of a neuron? & what causes it?
Makes membrane potential less negative
Certain neurontransmitters cause this
549
Is it always one big stimulus that causes an action potential?
No, sometimes it is many small depolarizations which cumulate to reach the threshold
Small stimuli are called Epsp (excitatory post synaptic potential)
550
What does hyper polarization do?(neuron)
Makes membrane potential more negative
551
What are ipsp stimuli?(neuron)
Inhibitory post synaptic potential which cause hyperpolarization & possibly offset depolarizations to prevent threshold from being reached
552
Phases of an action potential
Rest potential
Rising phase / depolarization
Peak
Falling phase / repolarization
Refractory period
553
What happens during the resting potential phase of an action potential?
Neuron is at rest: - 70 mv membrane potential
K+ leak channels are open
All other channels are closed
554
What happens during the rising phase / depolarization of an action potential?
Potential crosses -55 mv threshold
Voltage gated Na+ channels open & influx brings potential to +40 mv
555
What happens during the peak phase of an action potential?
Most positive membrane potential (+40 mv)
Voltage gated K+ channels start to open (slowly): a bit after the Na+ channels open
556
What happens during the falling phase / repolarization of an action potential?
Potential starts to fall back to negative value
Voltage gated Na+ channels become inactive
Voltage gated K+ channels are open & they go out, meaning potential becomes negative
557
What happens during the refractory period of an action potential?
There is an undershoot (potential around -90 mv)
Voltage gated K+ channels slowly close
Na+ channels are still inactive → impossible to evoke another action potential
Na/k pump returns membrane potential to -70 mv
558
Where are the leak channels open in action potential?
Always, they are not voltage gated
559
Examples of neurotransmitters
Amino acids, used in the Cns: glutamate, glycine, GABA, aspartate
Biogenic amines, used in cns & pns: dopamine, serotonin, adrenaline, noradrenaline
Neuropeptides, used in cns & pns: endorphins, substance p
Acetylcholine, used in cns & pns
560
Can a hormone also be a neurontransmitter?
Yes
561
Can a synapse happen without a neurontransmitter?
Yes, electrical synapses
562
Two types of synapses
Chemical: with neurontransmitters
Electrical: with gap junctions
563
How do electrical synapses work?
There is a direct contact via gap junctions where ions are sent through
564
Difference between electrical & chemical synapse
Chemical are not in contact & can only communicate in one direction, from post to presysaptic neuron
Election are in direct contact & communication can go both ways
565
Are synapses static?
No, over time they can strengthen or weakens. Basis of learning & memory retention
566
What is long term potential (ltp)? (Synapses)
Long term strengthening of synapse
Long term patterns of synapse use produce a synapse that increases signal transmission between 2 neurons
567
What is long term depression (Ltd)? (Synapses)
Long term weakening of synapse
Long term patterns of synapse disuse produce a synapse that decreases signal transmission between 2 neurons
568
What is the forebrain responsible for?
Higher reasoning, sensory processing, endocrine roles etc
569
3 most important parts of the forebrain
Cerebum (cerebraI cortex)
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
570
What does the midbrain do?
Processing visual & auditory signals, sleep, awakening etc
571
What is the hindbrain responsible for?
Vital processes
572
3 parts of the hindbrain
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
573
What does the brain consist of?
Midbrain, pons & medulla
574
4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
575
What does the frontal lobe do & contain?
Does: executive function, speech, decision making
Contains: olfactory lobe (processes smell) & motor cortex (generates signals to direct movements the body)
576
What does the parietal lobe do & contain?
Does: sensory perception & integration
Contains: somatosensory cortex (receives touch based sensory info) & propriocepion (sense of orientation in space)
577
What does the occipital lobe do?
Does: vision & identifying the world visually
578
What does the temporal lobe do & contain?
Interprets & processes auditory info
Contains hippocampus (processes memory formation)
579
Role of the thalamus
Sorts data & sends it where it needs to go
580
What is the one sensory info that doesn't have to go to the thalamus before being sent to the cerebral cortex for interpretation?
Smell
581
Roles of the hypothalamus
Homeostasis: temperature, osmotarity, blood pressure etc
Endocrine roles: hormone production + interaction with pituitary gland
582
Where are the basal ganglia situated?
At the base of the fore brain & top of the midbrain
583
Roles of the basal ganglia
Movement & posture
Motivation
Learning
Eye movement
Emotion
584
Roles of brainstem
Vital functions
Breathing, circulation, digestion
Sensory information filtration
Motor information filtration
585
Roles of the cerebellum
Balance / coordination
Learning new motor tasks like riding a bike
586
What protects the spinal chord?
Bones from the vertebrate column
587
Roles of spinal chord
Carries info from brain to body & vice versa
Controls motor reflexes (avoids brain)
588
3 sections of spine from top to bottom
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumber
589
What is white matter made of?
Myelinated axons
590
Where on the spinal chord is the most white matter?
On the outside
591
Where on the brain is the most white matter?
On the inside
592
What is grey matter made from?
Neuron & glial cell bodies
593
Where on the spinal chord is the most grey matter?
On the inside
594
Where on the brain is the most grey matter?
On the outside
595
What part of the peripheral nervous system controls voluntary movement?
The somatic
596
2 divisions of somatic ns
Sensory (afferent) division: receives external stimuli from sensory organs
Motor (efferent) division: sends voluntary commands to the skeletal muscles
597
Where are the dendrites & cell bodies of motor (efferent) neurons located?
In the spinal chord (cns)
598
Where are the axons of motor (efferent) neurons located?
In the pns
599
Where are the synapse of motor (efferent) neurons located? & what is it called?
By the muscle
Neuromuscular junction
600
What type of neurotransmitters do motor (efferent) neurons use?
Acetylcholine
601
From what side of the spinal chord do motor (efferent) neurons always exit?
The ventral (front side)
602
Where are the dendrites of sensory (afferent) neurons located?
By the sensory organ
603
Where are the cell bodies of sensory (afferent) neurons located?
Dorsal root ganglia (close to the spinal chord)
604
Where are the synapse of sensory (afferent) neurons located?
The spinal chord (cns)
605
Where are the axon of sensory (afferent) neurons located?
The pns
606
What side of the spinal chord does the sensory (afferent) neurons always enter?
Dorsal (back) side
607
Which is nervous system takes care of the non-voluntary movements?
Autonomic nervous system
608
What links Cns to internal organs
The autonomic ns
609
Which is the fight or flight ns?
The sympathetic ns
610
What happens when the sympathetic ns is activated? ( think what would make you better equipped to fight)
Eye: dilates
Heart: increases rate & force of contraction
Lungs: dilates bronchioles via circulating adrenaline
Blood vessels: discates to in skeletal muscle & contract in non-essential organs
Digestive systems: constricts blood flow to gastrointestinal organs
Sweat glands: activates sweat secretion
Digestive tract: inhibits peristalsis
Kidney: increases renin secretion
Penis: inhibits erections
611
What a the 2 types of neurons in the sympathetic & parasympathetic ns?
Preganglionic & postanglionic
612
Where are the Soma of preganglionic neurons located?
Usually in the spinal chord or brainstem
613
What kind of neurotransmitter is released by the preganglionic neurons?
Acetylcholine
614
Where are the Soma of postganglionic neurons located?
In a sympathetic ganglion ( next to the spine chord ) in the sympathetic ns
In a ganglion near target organ in parasympathetic ns
615
What kind of neurotransmitter is released by the postganglionic neurons?
Norepinephrine in sympathetic ns
Acetylcholine or nitric oxide in the parasympathetic ns
616
What ns is the "rest & digest" system?
The parasympathetic ns
617
What happens in the body when the parasympathetic ns is activated? ( think rest & digest )
Eye: constricts
Heart: decrease rate & force of contraction
Lungs: consfirets bronchioles
Blood vessels: constricts to in skeletal muscle & dialate in non-essential organs
Digestive systems: dilates blood flow to gastrointestinal organs
Sweat glands: deactivates sweat secretion
Digestive tract: promotes peristalsis
Kidney: reduces renin secretion
Penis: increases blood flow
618
What is known as the bodies second brain?
The enteric ns as it acts independently
619
What ns governs the Gi-tract?
Enteric ns
620
What is a reflex arc?
A neural pathway connecting a sensory neuron to the spinal chord which allows for fast reaction independent of the brain
621
2 types of reflex arcs
Somatic reflex arc: affecting muscles
Autonomic reflex arc: affecting inner organs
622
3 types of muscles
Skeletal muscles
Smooth muscles
Cardio muscles
623
Which are the voluntary muscles & what ns are they controlled by?
Skeletal muscles
Somatic ns
624
What are smooth muscle & what ns are they controlled by?
Non-voluntary
Autonomic ns
625
Does smooth muscles have sacomers?
No, they are non-striated
626
How many nucleus for each muscle cell?
One, uni-nucleated
627
What are cardiac muscle & what ns are they controlled by?
Non-voluntary
Can be independent but can also be controlled by the autonomic ns
628
Does cardiac muscles have sarcomeres?
Yes they are striated
629
How many nucleus for each cardiac cell?
One, uni- nucleated
630
What type of muscles are branching?
Cardiac muscles
631
What is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle?
The sarcomere
632
What is a muscles made up of?
Fascicles
633
What a fascicles made up off?
Muscles fibers / cells
634
What are muscle fibers/cells made up off ?
Bundles of myofibrils
635
What are myofabrils divided into?
Sarcomeres
636
What are the 3 names for the structural unit of the muscle?
Muscle fibre, muscle cell & myocyte
637
How many nucleus in the muscle fibres?
Many, multinucleated
638
What are muscle fibres made from?
Myofibril bundles
639
What is the sarcolemema?
The cell membrane surrounding a skeletal muscle cell
640
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (ser)?
The er of muscle cells
641
What is the neuromuscular junction?
Synaptic connection between the terminal end of a motor nerve & a muscle
642
3 types of skeletal muscle fibre
Type 1: slow oxidative
Type 2A: fast oxidative
Type 2B: fast glycolytic
643
Important to know about slow oxidative muscle fibre
Aerobic
Slow twitch
Red
A lot of myoglobin/ mitochondria
Resistant to fatigue
Repeated action
Lots of capillaries
More present in marathon runners
644
Important to know about type 2A (fast oxidative) muscle fibre
Aerobic / anaerobic
Medium twitch
Red
A lot of myoglobin/ mitochondria
Resistant to fatigue
Repeated action
Lots of capillaries
Type 2b can be turned into 2A with training
More present in weight lifters
645
Important to know about type 2B (fast glycolytic) muscle fibre
Anaerobic
Fast twitch
White
Low myoglobin/ mitochondria
Rapid fatigue
Fast quick action
Less capillaries
Type 2b can be turned into 2A with training & vice versa
More present in sprinters
646
What do the Z lines in Sarcomeres do?
Separate the sancomeres along the myofibril
647
What happens to the z lines when a sarcomere contracts?
They more close to the m-line & each other
648
What are thick filaments made from?
Myosin
649
What are thin filaments made from?
Actin
650
Does the thick filament move during contraction?
No
651
Do the thin filament move during contraction?
Yes, inward
652
What is the m- line of a sarcomere?
The middle in where actin is pulled towards
653
What is the i-band in a sarcomere?
Area that only contains actin
654
What happens to the l- band during contraction?
It shortens
655
What is the a-band in a sarcomere?
The area that contains myosin
656
What happens to the a-band during contraction?
Does not change
657
What is the h-zone of a sacomere?
The one that contains only myosin
658
What happens to the H-zone during contraction?
It shorted & eventually dissapears
659
What is the structure of myosin?
2 chains that form a helix
2 arms & 2 heads which together form a cross bridge
Heads have binding sites for ATP & for actin & a catalytic site
660
What is the structure of actin?
2 chains that form a helix with active sites that myosin connects to
661
What is tropomyosin?
Protein that covers the actin active site
662
How is binding of actin & myosin prevents?
Tropomyosin inhibits it by binding to the active site of a actin
663
How do we get rid of tropinyosin?
Troponin gets rid of it and actin & myosin can bind & muscle can move
664
What does there need to be a big influx of for muscles to be able to con that?
Calcium
665
What do t-tubules / transverse tubules do?
Rapidly transmit the action potential into the muscle fibre
666
What does the cross bridge cycle do?
Contract skeleton muscles
667
What is humoral immunity?
Immunity mediated by macromolecules in extracellular fluids
668
Where is humoral and cell mediated immunity found?
In both innate and adaptive immune system but mainly adaptive
669
What is cell mediated immunity?
Immunity carried out by immune cells
670
Where are extracellular pathogens found?
Outside cells line on the skin or mucosa
671
Example of extracellular pathogens
Bacteria, protozoans, fungi, multicellular parasites etc
672
Are there any type of extracellular viruses?
No they are always intracellular
673
What type of pathogen are viruses?
Intracellular
674
Examples of intracellular pathogens
Viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, multicellular-parasites etc
675
Are antibodies part of the humoral immune systems?
Yes
676
What does the innate immune system occur because of?
Genetic/physiological factors (not infection/vaccine)
677
What is the first line deffence of the innate immune system?
Physical & chemical barriers
678
What is the second line deffence in the innate immune system?
Cells & physicosical response (like inflammation& fever ) & chemicals
679
What are cytokines?
Cell signalling proteins
680
What is an interferon?
A cytokine that alerts the body of infection or cancer
681
What are complement proteins?
Inactive proteins in your blood that activate during infection
682
8 cells of the innate immune system
Monocytes → macrophages / dendritic cells
Mast cells
Dendritic cells
Natural kills (nk) cells
Basophils
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Macrophages
683
4 types of granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Mast cells
684
Which are the most abundant leukocyte?
Neutrophils
685
What are the first cells to arrive when you are infected?
Neutrophils
686
Where are granulocytes found?
Ih in blood vessel but they migrate to infecte/injured tissue
Mast cells are also found in connective tissue & mucous membranes
687
4 leukocytes that don't have granuoles
Monocytes
Macrophage
Dendritic cells
Nk -cells
688
Lymphocyte found in innate immune system?
Lymphocytes
689
What is the complex that presents "self" antigens to lymphocytes?
Mhc1
690
How does the Nk cells identify its target?
Infected cells presents viral proteins on the Mhc1
Infection & cancer can also cause the Mhc1 to be deformed or nos -existant
691
How do leukocytes "present" to each other?
Certain immune cells have this (like macrophages) & will use it to display proteins from a broken down bacteria
692
Which cells have Mhc1?
All neucleated (so those with a neucleus)
693
What are antigens?
A foreign macromolecule the immune system can react to, they generate an immune response
694
What is the humoral immunity in the adaptive immune system?
B-lymphocytes, the antibody mediated immunity
695
What produces antibodies?
Plasma cells
696
Which kind of cells are involved in cell mediated immunity?
T-lymphocytes
697
Different name for helper t-cells?
CD4 t-cells
698
Different names for killer t- cells
Cytotoxic t-cells & CD8 t-cells
699
How do killer t-cells kill the cells infected?
By releasing perforins & granzymes
700
What do t-supressor cells do?
Supress the immune system, helps immune system know what is self & non-self
701
Which cells are antigen presenting cells (apcs)?
B-lymphocytes, macropages & dendritic cells
702
Are the membrane-bound antibodies found on b-cells all the same?
No the each have their own unique antibody in their membrane
703
Where do helper t-cells bind to b-cells?
On Mhc2
704
Where do t-cells originate?
Bone marrow
705
What does the Cd4 protein in helper t-cells bind to?
MHc2 on b- cells
706
What does the Cd8 protein in cytotoxic t-cells bind to?
Mhc1 on infected or cancer cells
707
Do individual b-cells have the same DNA to produce antibodies?
Yes! They produce different antibodies but all cells have the same DNA
708
Different name for antibody & how to know if something is an antibody
Immunoglobulin, is something is called something with ig like iga then it's an antibody
709
What is on antibody?
Y-shaped protein
710
What binds the heavy & light chains in antibodies?
Disulphide bridges
711
2 regions of antibodies
Variable region & constant region
712
Where on an antibody does an antigen bind?
Variable region
713
What is the epitope of a antigen?
Region that binds to antibody
714
When are antibodies released from b- cells?
When it becomes plasma cells
715
What is opsonisation? (Antibody function)
When an antibody tags pathogens making it easier to find by macrophages thus promoting phagocytosis
716
What is neutralisation? (Antibody function)
When antibodies prevents pathogen from binding its target
717
What is agglutination? (Antibody function)
Glues together pathogens making them easier to kill
718
What is complement activation? (Antibody function)
Antibody binds to pathogen & attract complement proteins
719
What elements are found in antibodies?
Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen & hydrogen as it is a protein & sulphur because of the disulphide bridges
720
What is plasma made up of?
92% water
7% proteins
→ albumins: hydrophobic molecule carriers
→ fibrinogen: clotting junction
→ Globulins: antibodies, clotting proteins
1% solutes (electrolytes, glucose, waste...)
721
What is blood serum?
Plasma without clotting factors
722
What is the buffy coat made up of?
Leukocytes (white blood cells, immune function), plates/thrombocytes (clotting function)
723
Are platelets cells?
No they are cell fragments (no organelles)
724
Where do platelets come from?
Bone marrow
725
What make red blood cells different from other cells?
They have no organelles/ribosomes, no DNA or RNA
726
Where do red blood cells come from?
Bone marrow
727
Where is albumin found?
In plasma
728
Abbreviation for hemoglobin
Hb or HgB
729
How many amino acid chains does hemoglobin have?
4, it is a tetrameric protein
730
What structure does hemoglobin have? (hint: it is a tetrameric protein)
Quatermany structure
731
How many heme groups in a hemoglobin?
4, each binds 1 oxygen
732
How is heme able to bind oxygen?
It has in iron ion that oxygen can bind to
733
What is cooperative binding in hemoglobin?
Once one oxygen binds it is easier to bind another (affinity for O2 increases)
734
2 states of hemoglobin
Tense (t) state: no oxygen bound to heme
Relaxed (r) state: oxygen bound to heme
735
What is the Bohr effect in the hemoglobin?
It is allosterically inhibited by CO2 & H+ which means that when they are present it favors the t state so oxygen is released when Co 2 or carbonic acid (releases H+) is present
736
Where is myoglobin found?
Skeletal & cardiac muscle
737
Which has higher affinity for oxygen, hemoglobin or myoglobin?
Myoglobin
738
Role of myoglobin
Store oxygen (not transport it)
739
Co2+ H2O <-> ? <-> ?
Co2+ H2O <-> H2co3 (carbonic acid, not very stable) <-> Hco3 (bicarbonate) + H+
This reaction can occur in the blood
740
Can Carbondioxide attach to hemoglobin?
Yes, HbCO2
741
Where in the blood is Carbon dioxide transported
Plasma & erythrocyte
742
Where is bicarbonate found in the blood?
Plasma & erythrocyte (catalyzed)
743
Quantity of Co 2 transported in order of most to least
Bicarbonate (erythrocyte & plasma)
Carbominohemoglobin
Dissolved co 2
744
What catalyzes this reaction H2co3 <-> Hco3 + H+ in erythrocytes?
Carbonic anhydrase
745
Is bicarbonate acidic or basic?
Basic
746
What does it mean that epithelial cell has polarity?
The sides of the cells are different in surface & function
747
Which is the apical surface of epithelial cells & what are the main function?
Surface which faces the outside exterior environment or lumen
Absorption, secretion, sensing, filtration & protection
748
What can the apical surface be?
Ciliated, Microvilli & keratinized
749
Which is the apical surface of epithelial cells & what are the main function?
Faces the underlying tissue or basement membrane
Anchors the cell, nutrient exchange
750
What is the extracellular matrix of epithelial cells called?
Basement membrane
751
Where is the basement membrane found?
Between epithelial cells & connective tissue
752
What are the 2 layers of the basement membrane?
The basal Lamina
The reticular Lamina
753
What is the basement membrane (epithelial tissue) made from?
Collagen, other proteins & proteoglycans
754
Most important part of extracellular membranes?
Collagen
755
What is the function of the basement membrane (epithelial tissue)?
Structure, tissue regeneration & stability
756
What does it mean the epithelial tissue is avascular but innervated?
No blood vessels but supplied with nerves
757
How are epithelial cells connected?
Through desmosomes (structual role), gap junctions (ion communication) & tight junctions (block fluid flow)
758
What part of the skin contains epithelial tissue?
The epidermis
759
4 places epithelial tissue is found
Lining cavities, epidermis, glands & mucous membranes
760
Difference between epithelial & endothelial
Epithelia covers body surfaces where endothelia lines the inside of vessels such as blood & lymphatic vessels
761
What makes the pupil become wide?
The circular muscles of the iris relax
762
How many layers of cells are in simple epithelia?
1
763
How many layers of cells are in stratified epithelia?
More than 1 layer of cells
764
What do squamous epithelial cells look like?
Flat & scalelike
765
What do cuboidal epithelial cells look like?
Box/cube shaped
766
What do columnar epithelial cells look like?
Tall columned shaped
767
Why is pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue named such?
Despite it being 1 layer of cells it looks as if there are multiple as they are irregularily shaped & the nucleus is located different places
768
What is pseudostratified columnar? Where is it found & what is it's function?
Type of epithelial tissue
Trachea & respiratory tract
Secretion of mucous
Can be ciliated
769
What is stratified squamous? & where is it typically found? & what does it do?
Type of epithelial tissue
They on rare, found in certain glands
Products
770
What is stratified columnar? & where is it typically found? & what does it do?
Type of epithelial cells
Rare in the body, certain glands, male urethra
Protection
771
What is transitional epithelium? & where is it typically found? & what does it do?
Type of stratified epithelial tissue which can change shape
Bladder, unethra, ureters
Allows for stretching
772
Is stratified epithelial tissue typically for protective or secretory purposes?
Protective
773
Is stratified epithelial tissue typically ciliated?
No
774
What shape will glandular epithelium (which do secretion) typically be?
Cobodial or columnar
775
What is the extracellular matrix of connective tissue & what is it made of?
Very abundant & complex
Ground substance (fills the spice between cells, interstitial fluid, proteins & protcoglycans) & fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers & reticular fibers)
776
What is the main protein fiber in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue?
Collagen fibers
777
3 fibers which make the extracellular matrix of connective tissue
Collagen fibers
Elastic fibers
Reticular fibers
778
Which is the strongest Fiber & is it soluble?
Collagen & no it is insoluble
779
Which is the most abundant protein in the body?
Collagen
780
What is collagen made from?
3 amino acid chains which form a triple helix
781
Which protein are elastic fibers made from?
Elastin
782
Are elastic fibers soluble?
No, insoluble
783
What are reticular fibers made from?
A different type of collagen
784
Which fibers in the Ecm of corrective tissue provide an anchoring site for cells?
Reticular fibers
785
Are reticular fibers soluble?
No, insoluble
786
What kind of cells create the ecm of connective tissue & what does their name typically end in?
Immature (precursor) cells
“- blast”
787
What do immature (precursor) cells turn into & what does their name typically end with?
Mature cells
"- cyte"
788
What are the 2 types of connective tissue propper?
Loose & dense connective tissue
789
What makes loose connective tissue loose?
Thin & sparse collagen fibers
More ground substance
Less fibroblast
790
3 types of loose connective tissue?
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
791
What makes dense connective tissue dense?
Fibers make up most of the ecm
Less ground substance
More fibroblast
792
3 types of dense connective tissue
Regular
Irregular
Elastic
793
3 types of dense connective tissue
Regular
Irregular
Elastic
794
3 types of dense connective tissue
Regular
Irregular
Elastic
795
What is the most abundant type of connective tissue?
Areolar connective tissue
796
Where is areolar connective tissue found?
Surrounds blood vessels, nerve bundles, muscles, & organs
797
What does areolar connective tissue do?
Provides support, flexibility, movement & protection to organs & tissues
798
What is adipose connective tissue & what do they contain?
Fat
Contains adipocytes (fat cells)
799
What does reticular connective tissue do & what does it make up?
Supportive purposes
Lymphatic organs (spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow etc)
800
What is regular connective tissue made up of?
Organised collagen (point is same direction) & fibroblast
801
What does regular connective tissue form & why?
Tendons (muscle-bone) & ligaments (bone-bone) because they are good at resisting tension
802
What is irregular connective tissue made from?
Randomly arranged collagen
803
Where is the irregular tissue found & why?
Dermis, organ capsules, blood vessels etc because it resists tension in many directions
804
Where can elastic connective tissue be found?
Many places that need to stretch like vocal chords, dermis, aorta etc
805
Where is cartilage found?
In between the bones
806
Does cartilage have blood vessels & neurons?
No
807
How does cartilage receive nutrients?
Diffusion
808
What does cartilage contain?
Tissue fluid, resists compression
809
Main cell in cartilage & where are they found?
Chondrocstes, found inside lacunae
810
What are the roles of cartilage?
Support structure (joints, nose & ears)
Protection (spinal chord & brain)
Connects ribs to sternum & to each other
Withstand tension & compression
Reduces friction between bones in joints
Template for bone formation in children
Forms a scaffold for the growth of new bone tissue
Provides nourishment to the joint
Aids respiratory function: trachea & bronchi
811
What does the hyaline cartilage look like & what does it do?
Smooth glass like appearance, reinforces & cushions structures
812
Where is hyaline cartilage found?
Ribs, nose, larynx & trachea
813
Where is fibrocartilage found?
Areas subject to a lot of stress/pressure like intervetebral discs & knee joints
814
Which type of cartilage is best at absorbing shock & resisting compression ?
Fibrocartilage
815
Where is elastic cartilage found?
In ares requiring flexibility & shape retention like ear, epiglottis & tip of nose
816
What is bone & what does it contain?
An organ which contains bone tissue & other types of tissue
817
Different name for bone tissue?
Osseous tissue
818
What does the ecm of bone tissue contain?
Collagen & inorganic calcium salts
819
Does bone tissue have blood vessels & nerves?
Yes
820
What is osteoid made of? (Bone tissue)
Ground substance & collagen fibers
821
What is the organic component of bone tissue?
Cells & osteoid
822
What is the inorganic component of bone tissue?
Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate based)
823
Roles of bone
Supports body, facilitate movement, protects organs, store minerals (calcium & phosphate), store fat (yellow bone marrow), haematopoiesis (red blood cell production, red bone marrow), hormone production
824
What are axial bones?
Head & torso area (spine, ribcage, skull )
825
What are the appendicular bones?
Appendages & limbs
Shoulder, legs, pelvis, arms & so on
826
What is compact bone?
The hard outer layer (cortex) of bone
827
What does compact bone contain?
Osteons
828
What a the 2 layers of compact bone?
Periosteum: outer surface
Endosteum: inner surface
829
2 other names for spongy bone
Cancellous bone & trabecular bone
830
What is the spongy bone?
Inter layer of bone
831
What does spongy bone contain?
Open Spaces with bone marrow
832
6 types of bones
Flat bone
Short bone
Irregular bone
Long bone
Sesamoid bone
Sutural bone
833
What are short bones?
Short cube shape bones which are thin plates of spongy bone covered by compact bone
834
Can bone marrow be found in short bones?
Yes but not a lot as there are no well defined cavity for it
835
Example of short bones
Wrist (carpals), ankle (tarsals), kneecap (patella)
836
What are flat bones?
Flattened bones with a broad surface which are thin plates of spongy bone covered by compact bone
837
Is there any bone marrow in flat bone?
Yes but not a lot as there are no well defined cavity for it
838
Examples of flat bone?
Skull, scapulae (shoulder, blades), sternum (breast bone) & ribs
839
What are irregular bones?
Bones with many different shapes made of thin plates of spongy bone covered in compact bone
840
Is there an bone marrow in irregular bone?
Yes but not a lot as there are no well defined cavity for it
841
Examples of irregular bone?
Pelvis & vertebrae
842
What are sesamoid bone?
Type of short bone found in tendons, thin plates of spongy bone covered by compact bone
843
Example of sesamoid bone
Patella (kneecap)
844
What are sutures bone?
Subtype of irregular bone within the sutures (joints) of some cranial bones in the skull
845
What are long bones?
Bones that are longer than they a wide
846
Regions of Long bones
Diaphysis (shaft)
2 epiphyses (ends)
847
What is the diaphysis of Long bone composed of & what does it contain?
Compact bone
Surrounds a medullary cavity which contains yellow marrow (in adults)
848
What are the epiphyses of long bones made of & what do they contain?
Mainly spongy bone & a bit of compact bone on the outside
Cavities of spongy bone contain red marrow
849
What are osteons?
The functional unit of bone
850
What are Osteon also called?
Haversian systems
851
What shape does an osteon have?
Cylindrical
852
What is the haversian canal?
Central canal of osteon which has blood supply
853
What are the layers in the osteon called?
Lamellae
854
What are lacunae in osteon? (Bones)
Space holding osteocytes
855
What are canaliculi in osteon?
Canals between lacunae
856
Where are osteon found?
Only compact bone
857
Are osteon found in all bones?
No, some are mainly made of spongy bone
858
Where is the osteogenic cell found?
In the periosteum & endosteum of the compact bone
859
What type of cells are osteogenic cells?
Stem cells (can differentiate into other cells)
860
What do osteogenic cells turn into?
Osteoblasts
861
Where are osteoblasts found?
In the periosteum & endosteum of the compact bone
862
What does the osteoblast secrete?
The extracellular matrix
863
What do osteoblast become when surrounded by ecm?
Osteocytes
864
What does it mean that osteoblasts are mitotic?
They are active cells, divide rapidly
865
Where is the osteocytes found?
Inside the lacunae in the osteon in compact bone
866
What do osteocytes do?
Regulate bone formation by osteoblasts & bone resorption by osteoclasts
In other words, they monitor & maintain ecm
867
Are osteocytes mitotic?
No they are inactive
868
What maintains the ECM in bones?
Osteocytes
869
What creates the ECM in bones?
Osteoblasts
870
What breaks down bone to release minerals into the blood?
Osteoclasts
871
Which bone cells are multinucleated?
Only osteoclasts
872
What is the process of breaking down minerals to release minerals called?
Resorption
873
Which are the mature cells in blood?
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Thrombocytes (platelets, cell fragments)
874
Where are hematopoietic stem cells found?
In bone marrow
875
What is the maturation of hematopoietic stem cells called?
Haematopoiesis
876
Does blood have an ECM?
Yes, blood plasma
877
Why is blood connective tissue?
It connects & supports the body through nutrients, O2, waste removal
Protects the body through immune system & blood clotting
And it has a mesencagne origin
878
Different names for muscle cells
Muscle fibers & myocyte
879
What is the ECM of muscle tissue made of?
Mainly collagen but also elastin, glylosaminoglycans & proteoglycans
880
Does muscle tissue have blood vessels & nerves?
Yes
881
2 ways for skeletal muscles to connect to bones
Directly or Via tendons
882
What is the precursor cell of muscle cells?
Myoblasts
883
Are skeletal muscle cells mutinucleated?
Yes
884
What are the cells of the nervous tissue?
Neurons & the different glial cells
885
What is the unique component of the ECM of nervous tissue?
Myelin
886
What are nerves?
Cable like bundles of nerve fibers (axon) with supporting glia
887
What does 1 nerve have in terms of neurous?
Many
888
Where are nerves found?
PnS
889
What are nerves in the Cns called?
Nerve tracts
890
Are there unique nerves in the body?
Yes like the longest nerve which is the Sciatic nerve
891
3 types of nerves
Motor (efferent)
Sensory (Afferent)
Mixed (carry signal both ways)
892
What a cranial nerves?
Nerves that emerge directly from the brain (brainstem or the cerebrum)
Interverte structures located in the head & neck
893
What are spinal nerves?
Emerge from the spinal cord
Innovate structures in the rest of the body
Mixed nerves
894
What is a nucleus in the Central nervous system?
Cluster of neuronal all bodies which are integrating centres
895
Which biological processes involves ions?
Pretty much all processes
896
Do all hormones travel in the bloodstream?
Yes
897
Do all hormones travel in the blood stream?
Yes
898
What do autocrine hormones effects?
The cell they are produced in
899
What do autocrine hormones effects?
The cell they are produced in
900
What do paracrine hormones effects?
Regional, close by ex. Hypothalamus & pituitary gland
901
What do endocrine hormones effects?
Things far away
902
Is the movement of Carbon dioxide into the alveoli in the lungs active transport on diffusion?
Diffusion
903
Is the movement of chemicals in a neural synapse active transport on diffusion?
Diffusion
904
Is the reabsorption of glucose in the kidney active transport on diffusion?
Active transport
905
What are monoclonal antibodies?
Antibodies made by identical b cells that are all closes of a unique parent all
They bind to a single specific region of an antigen (the epitope)
Can be produced artificially in a lab
906
What kind of reaction is the formation of polypeptides?
Condensation reaction
907
Where is all the glucose absorbed in the kidneys of a healthy human?
Proximal convoluted tubules
908
Where is adh released from?
Posterior pituitary gland
909
During what phase of the human cell cycle does mRNA synthesis occur?
Interphase
910
How do you find the actual size of a structure when given the image size & magnification?
Actual size = image size / magnification
911
Where are osteocytes found?
In the gaps between the lamellas
912
What is the pleura?
A serous membrane that lines the lungs & thoracic cavity
913
Where are the vocal cords located?
In the larynx
914
Name 4 lymphoid organs
Bone marrow
Spleen
Thymus
Lymph nodes
915
Are there muscle in the alveoli?
No
916
What does haemoglobin have a higher affinity for, Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide or oxygen ?
Carbon monoxide as it binds irreversibly
917
What does haemoglobin have a lower affinity for, Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide or oxygen ?
Carbon dioxide as it binds to amino acids & not the heme group
918
What organ lowers the ph for optimal enzyme function?
The stomach
919
What part of the immune response is the production of interferons, raised temperature in location of infection & increased permeability of capillaries a part of?
The non specific innume response
920
In which part of the nervous system are ganglia found?
PNS
