animal physiology midterm Flashcards
(462 cards)
1
Q
what is physiology
A
functional dynamics in living things
2
Q
what are the levels of biological organization
A
biochemical, cellular, organ, systemic, organismal
3
Q
what did aristotle observe
A
natural processes within bodies
4
Q
what two people studied physiology with a connection to medicine
A
galen and harvey
5
Q
anatomical studies lead to speculation about____
A
function
6
Q
when did galen live
A
2nd century rome
7
Q
what did galen postulate
A
flow dynamics of blood in human body
8
Q
who studied medicine in early experimental investigations (post medieval)
A
william harvey
9
Q
when did william harvey live
A
17th century
10
Q
what did william harvey prove
A
refuted galens direction of blood flow through study of cardiovascular system
11
Q
what processes affect the internal environment of an organism
A
temperature, ph, ion levels
12
Q
what can affect membrane/protein structures in an organism
A
changes in the internal environment
13
Q
how can reaction dynamics be affected in the internal environment
A
by changes in the internal environment via kinetic energy
14
Q
why is a stable internal environment vital for organisms
A
to maintain constant internal conditions
15
Q
what regualtes internal conditions
A
homeostasis
16
Q
why is the father of physiology
A
c. bernard
17
Q
when did bernard live
A
19th century france
18
Q
what did bernard do
A
work on renal and cardiovascular systems emphasizing internal environment
19
Q
what are two ways body parameters can be compromised
A
external environmental changes, internal generated changes
20
Q
what are some external environmental changes
A
temperature, solutes
21
Q
what are some examples of internally generated changes
A
rest vs exercise, eating vs fasting
22
Q
what are additional complications to compromised body parameters
A
disturbance length, conform or regulate
23
Q
what is a conformer
A
parameter changes with the environment, no homeostasis
24
Q
what is a regulator
A
regulate against environmental changes until some extreme limit is reached
25
what is circumstantial regulation
animal itself is both a conformer and a regulator depending on the observed parameter
26
what is an example of a circumstantial regulator
salmon conform to temperature but regulates chloride ion concentration
27
what limits the ability of an organism to resist a change
compromised body parameters
28
what is the genomic perspective on evolutionary physiology
look at variability within the population, that variability is material for evolution to operate on
29
traits of evolution are programmed by ___
genetics
30
what is evolutionary physiology based on population genetics
morphological variation versus genetic variation
31
what is morphological variation
easily recognizable, involves allelic differences
32
why does genetic variation exist
because of allele differences within and between populations
33
why studied physiological genomics
t. garland
34
what about physiological genomics did t. gardland study
disease susceptibility, establishment of adaptive traits
35
what is a negative feedback system
constant monitoring of a controlled parameter that minimizes deviation from pet point giving stability of a parameter
36
why studied cybernetics
w. cannon
37
what about cybernetics did w. cannon study
regulatory system operation, constant monitoring of controlled parameter
38
what is a sensor
keeps tabs on regulated paramter
39
what parameter does a sensor usually keep tabs on
often more than one nerve cell or other neural component
40
what is the control center
usually in the brain to interpret parameter information and compare to a set point
41
what is the effector/inverting amplifier
deliver output to modify parameter value, minimizing deviation from set point to yield stability
42
what is a fever
elevated temperature set point
43
what is a positive feedback system
response augments deviation from set point
44
what is an example of a positive feedback
ap generation and blood clotting
45
what does it mean that duration of activity and level of change is tightly controlled in positive feedback systems
there is a maximum level that causes rapid termination before it gets out of control
46
what is a positive feedback operation
effector evokes change in the same direction as the parameter
47
what is a servomechanism
operation may entail negative feedback, set point not fixed over a short period of time
48
what effect can a servomechanism have
rapid error sensing and output corrections become critical with instantaneous changes being made
49
when does servomechanism occur
in skeletal muscle during locomotion (rapidly changing levels in strength output, muscle length, point position)
50
what is metabolism
all chemical dynamics within an organism and the regulation of certain parameters
51
ATP production =____
cellular respiration
52
what are the 4 ways to measure whole animal metabolism
heat production/calorimetry
o2 consumption
co2 production
respiratory quotient
53
what is calorimetry
heat liberated when breaking down substances and making ATP
54
how do you measure calorimetry
calorimeter
55
what is a calorimeter
system isolated from external envinroment that is well insulted
56
what is o2 consumption in terms of animal metabolism
measuring the loss of o2 in environment and resulting pressure changes
57
how can o2 consumption be measured
indirectly through manometry or directly
58
how do you measure co2 production in animal metabolism
directly measure with equipment
59
what is the respiratory quotient
ratio of amounts of co2 produced divided by the amount of o2 used (co2prod/o2used)
60
what can the respiratory quotient show
the fuel source of the organism and also gives insight about diet and nutritional status
61
what is the rq for carbs
1
62
what is the rq for proteins/ amino acids
0.8-0.9
63
what is the rq for fatty acids
0.7
64
what is the fasting rq
1
65
what is the principle source of body heat
temperature regulation
66
what is endothermy
use elevated level of metablosm to produce most of needed body heat
67
what organisms are endotherms
mammals and birds
68
what are the ecological tradeoffs for endothermy
activity versus food intake
69
what did else and hulbert study
lizard vs mammal/bird
70
what were the major findings from else and hulberts lizard vs mammal/bird study
the body composition differences, cellular consideration differences,
71
what is the difference in body composition between endo and ectotherms
endo tissues form a larger percent of body mass (larger liver, larger heart, more muscle)
72
what are the cellular differences between endo and ectotherms
endotherms have more mitochondira in cells and a greater oxidative capacity
73
what are the ATP differences between endo and ectotherms
both have same ATP pools, but endotherms have a higher ATP turnover
74
what are the differences in plasma membranes in endo vs ectotherms
endotherm plasma membranes much leakier to sodium and hydrogen
75
what is the benefit of having leaky plasma membranes
it gives excess heat production because fighting against leaks by using ATP, the generation of the ATP produces heat needed by endotherms
76
working muscle increases the usage of ___
ATP
77
what is the ideal response to working muscle
constant low o2 consumption at rest, jumps sharply to higher o2 level at exercise, drops sharply to lower level of o2 consumption at rest
78
what is the actual response to working muscle
progressive rise in o2 consumption to a sustained level, but an o2 defecit with develop
79
what does o2 levels rise in proportion to
intensity of activity
80
what is EPOC
(excess postexercise oxygen consumption) oxygen debt repayment to correct biochemical disturbances caused by exercise
81
why is the best case of oxygen consumption not what is observed
because early stages of exercise require anaerobic metabolism before aerobic metabolism is able to kick in which causes a defecity of o2
82
what happens to o2 consumption during intense exercise
exceeds aerobic capacity so anaerobiosis becomes vital
83
what does anaerobic metabloism cause
fatigue, especially over time
84
what does maximal aerobic exercise do
elevates resting metabolic rate by 5-15 fold
85
why can mammals use aerobic metabolism longer than any other animal
because ATP production is better supported
86
what is supramaximal exercise
above maximum aerobic capacity (huge defecit (EPOC) to correct)
87
what is energy metabolism
sustainable production of ATP in order to maintain activity (ATP fuelds muscle machinery)
88
in glycolysis how many ATP are produced for one glucose molecule
2 atp/glucose
89
glycolysis is a high flux pathway, what does this mean
a lot of fuel can go through this process quickly
90
where is glycolysis occurring
cytoplasm
91
what builds up in cells during glycolysis
pyruvic acid
92
what happens to pyruvic acid in cells
some goes through pyruvate oxidation, the rest is converted to lactic acid
93
what happens when lactic acid is formed
NAD supply is depleted and glycolysis bottle necks encouraging lactic acid formation to help rebalance the NAD supply
94
what is the only fuel for direct use in the glycolysis pathway
glucose
95
what happens if you dont have glucose and you need to undergo glycolysis
gluconeogenesis to synthesize glucose from other sources
96
what are the downsides to using glycolysis
low efficiency, quick fatigue
97
why does fatigue occur in glycolysis
because of free inorganic phosphate
98
what is the intermediate level of aerobic metabolism driven by
glucose/glycogen
99
what are prolonged exercises better supported by
fatty acids
100
what is the major source for ATP production in the beginning of exercise
glucose from muscle glycogen
101
what is the source of ATP production in long term exercise
glucose from blood and fatty acids
102
____ have better aerobic metabolism
endotherms
103
what is the aerobic scope for insects
50-200x increase in aerobic metabolism from resting level
104
what does lactate dehydrogenase do
converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid
105
what is the clash effect
should i conform or should i regulate
106
whats an example of a standard morphological variation
eye colour differences in humans
107
whats an example of physiological variation within a population
some individuals of same species and same population can show differences in things like oxygen consumption
108
whats an example of genetic diversity of a species
a species can have different traits based on external factors. ex field mice size in canada versus mexico
109
what is manometry used for
indirectly measuring O2 consumption
110
describe a basic calorimeter
animal in shell, shell surrounded by ice, animals body melts ice and basin below shells collects water for measurement of melt per minute
111
why is endothermy not preferred
high activity needs high food intake (very fuel expensive)
112
what are some cellular differences in endotherms versus ectotherms
endotherms have more mitochondria due to higher need to generate ATP
113
what are some other smaller enzyme pathways for reactions
energy of activation, substrate to product, induced fit (pyruvic acid to lactic acid)
114
what does maude menten graph show
reaction velocity over substrate concentration
115
describe maude menten graph
exponental
116
what is Vmax (maude menten)
maximum rate of catalysis (saturation)
117
what is Km (maude menten)
substrate cencentration needed to reach half vmax (half max rate catalysis)
118
What is glycogenesis
Glucose from non-carbs
119
what are some physical features required for gas exchange in animals
large surface area, thin layer, well vascularized
120
what are the main types of gas exchange in animals
cutaneous, gills, lungs, tracheal system
121
what is a gill
evagination of body surface (can be external or internal)
122
whats the difference between external and internal gills
internal gills have a flap over them, external gills are exposed to the environment
123
what are lungs
sac-like invagination of body surface
124
what are tracheal systems
tubular invaginations from body surface
125
what is the advantage of respiratory systems
ready diffusion of O2 and CO2
126
whats a disadvantage of respiratory systems
rapid exchange with water/atmosphere can disturb body fluid composition
127
if body fluid composition is disturbed what can happen to an organism
can lead to edema
128
what is edema
fluid build up
129
how does O2 and CO2 move across a respiratory organ
diffusion or bulk flow
130
what is the difference between diffusion and bulk flow
diffusion is by concentration gradients, bulk flow is by a pressure gradient
131
what is key to ventilation of respiratory organs
bulk flow
132
why is it critical to move oxygen along a boundary layer
if you dont then a layer of hypoxia will occur and tissues can die. needs to be an exchange of o2 in and out of boundary layer
133
what kind of respiratory organs do most insects have
multiple tubular invaginations
134
what is a boundary layer
a layer of stagnant fluid (o2 and co2) along a gas exchange membrane (separates external and internal membranes)
135
what kinds of organisms use a tracheal system for respiration
insects and some arthropods
136
describe in short the anatomy of the tracheal system
tubular invaginations at body surface (spiracles) with diaphragms, with smaller tracheoles to deliver and remove gasses
137
how many spiracles are common on insects and arthropods
12
138
what is the diameter of tracheoles
0.5 micrometers
139
what is the function of a diaphragm with spiracles
diaphragm covers spiracle to control whats coming in and going out
140
what is the transport methods in a tracheal system
diffusion (works well for small organisms)
| ventilation (works great for large organisms)
141
where are spiracles found on the body of insects and arthropods
found on thorax and abdomen
142
how does ventilation in large insects work
air sacs near spiracle, abdominal movements create pressure gradients and bulk flow (allow to draw air in and out at different rates)
143
why is simple diffusion not good enough for larger insects
not enough o2 in air to support movement with simple diffusion, too large of a surface area
144
how does a tracheal system work in water insects
many have a plastron
145
how does a plastron work
it acts as a gill for the organism. o2 from water can go into the air bubble due to concentration gradient in water and bubble
146
what organisms have a cutaneous gas exchange
amphibians, invertebrates (worms, cnidarians)
147
what is required of an organism for cutaneous gas exchange
large, thin, well vascularized surface area (surface area is generally the epidermis)
148
what are some major issues with cutaneous gas exchange
mechanical protection issues, can dry out, little control on exchange rate, boundary layer issues
149
what is the epidermal thickness in cutaneous gas exchange
one cell thick or a few cells thick epidermis
150
what gas exchange does a hellbender have
lungs and cutaneous gas exchange depending on what environment its in
151
how can an organism increase surface area if it uses cutaneous gas exchange
it can make fleshy folds to increase surface area
152
how does a hellbender remove a boundary layer thats been created from being in stagnent water
starts to rock itself to make a small current
153
what is the gas exchange method of amphibians
most amphibians have multiple gas exchange method
154
what is a bird respiratory system
numerous air sacs through body connected by passageways
155
what are the primary sets of air sacs in avian respiration
cranial and caudal air sacs
156
the lungs of a bird are honeycombed with what
tubules (parabronchi)
157
what induces volume change of fluid in avian respiration
muscular movements of ribs and sternum
158
what is the direction of airflow if avian reduces pressure
reduced pressure allows air inflow
159
what is the direction of airflow if avian increased pressure
increased pressure moves air out
160
how many cycles of air flow do avians have
two unidirectional air flow in parabronchi (2 volumes at once)
161
why is it significant to have two cycles of air flow in avian
reduced dilution with old air, keeps air fresh in lungs and more oxygen rich
162
why is it significant that avian bloodflow is crosscurrent with airflow
gives high level of oxygenation in low environmental oxygen
163
what part of the avian respiratory system is vascularized
air sacs not really vascularized, vascularization happens in the parabronchi between the anterior and posterior air sacs
164
why is it significant that avian capilaries are cross current
gives longer exposure to air so it gives a better gas exchange (vital when in low oxygen environment--like the sky)
165
what is the bony structure in birds that creates vocalization
syrinx
166
what is the syrinx synonemous with in humans
larynx
167
the syrinx has membrane like vocal chords, how can these produce different pitch
they can extend or retract the length of the chord to produce different sound
168
when one hears a bird song who are they typically hearing
typically small male birds trying to attract a mate
169
where is the syrinx located
at the base of the trachea
170
how can birds change the length of their "vocal chords"
head and neck movements
171
why does the size of a beak matter in bird vocalization
beak size is correlated to speed of movement and song dynamic
172
do small or large birds have more complex vocalizations
small birds have more complex
173
simply what is an amphibian lung
simple sac with moderate surface area elaboration
174
what kind of pressure inflation do reptile lungs have
positive pressure
175
are amphibian or reptile lungs more complex
reptile are more complex
176
what kind of pressure dynamic do most vertebrate lungs have
most vertebrate lungs have a negative pressure system
177
what is a negative pressure dynamic
use bucal cavity to push air into lungs creating a positive pressure (bucal cavity contracts pushing air positively into lungs)
178
what animal has one functional lung
snakes within reptiles (other lung is vestigial)
179
how do reptiles compensate for exchange since the integument doesnt have any meaningful O2 exchange
have more sacculations in their lungs to increase surface area without necessarily creating a bigger lung
180
what is a faveoli
a sac within the lungs of reptiles
181
where is the most sacculation (faveoli) in the lungs of snakes
primarily in first 1/3 of the snakes lung (1st 1/3 cranially)
182
what does the last 2/3 of the snake lung act as
acts as bellows which activates pressure cycles
183
what is a bellows
an area that allows contraction or expansion
184
how does a snake lung act as a bellows
old air in last 2/3 of lung is pushed towards outward creating an inner pull for new air to come in
185
all amphibians have sacculated lungs, why
to increase surface area and increase gas exchange
186
what is a thoracic cavity
present in mammalian lungs, pleural space, drained by lymphatic system)
187
simply what are mammalian lungs
paired lungs with lobes
188
how is air modified before coming into the lungs
air is conditioned to make it wetter, warmer, and cleaner
189
where is the diaphragm
below the lungs
190
how many lobes does a human heart have
5
191
why is there no gas exchange on the conduction zone
its too thick
192
why is gas exchange possible in the respiratory zone
because of millions of microscopic bubble like alveoli
193
what does the respiratory tree begin with
trachea that is superior to the thoracic cavity
194
the respiratory tree has successive branching, what are the main types of branching here
generations and alveoli
195
how many generations are there in mammalian lungs
23 (0-16 conducting zone, 17-23 respiratory zone)
196
what causes branchiolar constriction
smooth muscle walls of middle passagewats
197
what was branchiolar constriction
reduced airflow
198
what kind of constriction is present in asthma
hyperconstriction
199
how many alveoli are in the lungs
300 million
200
when would you use nearly all of the alveoli
when exercising
201
what surface area does 300 million alveoli create
85m^2 surface area
202
why do overweight individuals have a higher chance of having asthma
adipocytes release lung imflammatory protein (fatter you are, 3x more protein released and inflammation causes asthma)
203
what promotes relaxation and increased airflow of bronchioles when having asthma attack
sympathetic division with epinephrine
204
when would the bronchioles change in diameter
when they are inflammed they close up (asthma), when theyre relaxed theyre open
205
as the diameter of the bronchioles increases, the resistence of fluid movement ....
decreases
206
what affects the fluid movement of air in the bronchioles
tubule length and diameter
207
what is the size of a single alveolus
300microns
208
the main wall of the alveolus is made of what kind of cells
simple squamosal
209
what are the type 1 epithelial cells
main all of alveolus
210
what are the type 2 epithelial cells
between successive alveoli, secretory mitochondria
211
what are secretory mitochondria
lamellated bodies
212
what do secretory mitochindria produce
surfactant (dipalmitoyl lecithin)
213
what does a lack of surfactant (dipalmitoyl lecithin) cause
can cause respiratory distress syndrome in children
214
what do fibroblasts do
build connective tissue
215
what do macrophages do
remove pathogens (defensive function)
216
what kind of cells are type 2 epithelial cells
cuboidal
217
whats the function of surfactant
reduces cohesion of water molecules, reducing surface tension
218
what is the function of fibrocartilage in alveoli
ribrocartilage helps to keep alveoli open so gas exchange can continue
219
what are ventilation dynamics
pressure volume changes (tissue fluid pressure in pleural cavity)
220
why is tissue fluid pressure in pleural cavity higher than lung pressure
without the pressure difference lungs can collapse (pneumothorax)
221
what is the pressure difference between pleural cavity and lungs during inhalation
3-4mmHg
222
what is the pressure difference bwteen pleural cavity and lungs during exhalation
1-2mmHg difference from exhalation
223
what is pneumothorax
when pressure between pleural cavity and lung is compromised, lung collapses and pleural cavity fills with air
224
what forces lungs to move involuntarily
diaphragm will be activated to contract
225
what direction do intercostals move
outward and up
226
how much CO2 is in the body at all times
about 40mmHg
227
how much CO2 is in the environment usually
about 100mmHg
228
is inspiration or expiration always an active process
inspiration is ALWAYS an active process
229
what are the types of volume changes
inhalation and exhalation
230
how does inspiration happen
cavity boundaries expand and lung follows
231
how does exhalation happen
cavity boundaries recoil, lungs follow
232
how can exhalation be active or passive
passive because elastic recoil can force air from lungs, active because muscles (intercostals, rectus abdominus) can force air out of lungs
233
what is anatomical dead space
the residual volume of air in lungs that cannot be forced out
234
how much oxygen is found in alveoli
100mmHg
235
how much oxygen is found in environment
160mmHg
236
what is the exchange time to equilibrate blood to lung air
about 1/4 of a second
237
what is the resting transit time to equilibrate blood to lung air
about 3/4 of a second
238
what is the exercise transit time to equilibrate blood to lung air
about 1/3 of a second.
239
equilibrating blood to lung air is a feature of which type of epithelial cells
type 1 epithelial cells
240
elephants lack a pleural cavity, how do they keep their lungs from collapsing
lungs are tethered open
241
what is west's argument for elephant lungs being tethered open
evolved for snorkeling behavior, water compression would otherwise collapse the lungs
242
what is elasticity
readily recoils to original shape
243
what is compliance
stretches easily
244
when is elasticity and compliance opposite of each other
at extreme ends of the spectra (if excessively elastic then lose compliance and vice versa)
245
what are obstructive lung diseases
COPD and asthma
246
what is COPD
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
247
how is COPD caused
cigarettes, volatile chemicals get in the middle of the respiratory tree and causes imflammation that can lead to emphazema meaning air cant get to alveoli because air tubing was blown apart, non reparable
248
what do obstructive lung diseases do
increase airway resistance
249
what do restrictive lung diseases do
increase elasticity of lungs
250
whats an example of a restrictive lung disease
fibrotic lung disease
251
how does fibrotic lung disease work
air bourse particles not being filtered out so they go in conductive or respiratory zone, tubercles are made in defense where fibroblasts trap off that part of the lung eventually reducing lung capacity
252
what does VC=
VC=TVr+IRV+ERV
253
what is vc
vital capacity
254
what is tvr
tidal volume resting
255
what is irv
inspiratory reserve volume
256
what is erv
expiratory reserve volume
257
what is vital capacity
maximum amount of air that can move through lungs
258
what is the typical total lung capacity
around 4-6L
259
what is vital capacity volume
3-5L
260
what is residual volume typically
1L
261
what is residual volume
excess air in lungs that cant be pushed out
262
what is tidal volume
amount of air moved in a breathing cycle
263
what is a typical tidal volume at rest
about 500ml
264
what is a typical inspiratory reserve
3L
265
what is a typical expiratory reserve
1L
266
inspiratory and expiratory each have their own ___ potantial
pacemaker
267
what is the purpose of increasing depth and rate of breathing for tetrapod vertebrates
maintaining hemoglobin saturation of O2 and CO2
268
what does branchiolar dialation do
lowers resistance
269
where in the brain is breathing controlled
medulla oblongata
270
what does the VRG of the medulla have
inspiratory and expiratory neurons
271
what does the DRG of the medulla have
modifies VRG activity
272
where does the pacemaker potention of inspiration and expiration happen
in the medualla
273
what are chemoreceptors
nerve endings involved in tissue chemistry
274
how do mammals regulate their breathing
through chemoreceptors
275
what is the driving dynamic in terrestrial animals
mostly CO2 and in turn pH
276
what is the driving dynamic in fish
o2
277
why does ph change as co2 changes in a driving dynamic of terrestrial animals
as hydrogen ions increases ph drops, in turn as co2 increases ph drops
278
what does driving dynamic affect? (the driving dynamic of)
blood and cerebral spinal fluid chemistry
279
what happens when not enough o2 coming into organism (too much co2 within)
hypoventilation
280
what happens when too much o2 comes in (not enough co2 within)
hyperventilation
281
what is the function of a stretch receptor
sets limit on inhalation
282
when can o2 be the driving dynamic in terrestrial animals
if o2 in body low enough it can become the driving dynamic
283
what conditions can cause o2 to be driving dynamic in terrestrial
emphazema, elevation (mountain sickness)
284
what is a secondary driving dynamic
driving dynamic that takes over when primary isnt most important anymore (ex. emphazema o2)
285
what does the pons in the brain affect
breathing rythem
286
why are higher brain centers like the pons required
needed for controlling rythm of breathing when swimming for exaplme
287
what is responsible for involuntary breathing
medulla
288
what are invertebrate gills common in
large bodied or more active aquatic invertebrates
289
what are some examples of invertebrates that have gills
crustaceans and polycheates
290
which invertebrates use gills on land
isopods
291
what are parapodia
fleshy extensions with large surface area used in locomotion and gas exchange (polycheates)
292
what are some examples of polycheates that use parapodia
sand worm and clam worm
293
what kind of gills do decapod crustaceans have
internal cavity
294
what are internal cavity gills
carapas covers the gills so its an evagination but its covered (similar to that of fish)
295
what kind of breathing do fish have
ram ventilation or buccal-opperculum pumping
296
what is ram ventilation
swim with the mouth open, water passes over the gills and goes out the gill slit
297
where are the fish gills
internalized in chamber adjoining the pharynx
298
what kind of fish have separate chambers for each gill
primitive fishes like hagfish and lampreys and condricthes
299
osteichthyes have a ____ to cover gills and make them more internalized
opperculum
300
what organ helps with osmoregulation and ion regulation in fishes
gills
301
what is buccal-operculum pumping
expand buccal-operculum cavity with operculum closed and mouth open (water flows in due to reduced pressure) then contract buccal operculum cavity with operculum valve open and mouth closed (forces water over gills and outside the body)
302
what kind of gas exchange dynamic do fish have
counter current dynamic
303
what is counter current exchange
water flows across gill epithelium from pharynx toward gill slit, blood flows through vessels in opposite direction
304
why is counter current gas exchnage good for fishes
blood hits increasing o2 levels keeping the blood very high in 02
305
what is internal transport in animals
cardiovascular systems of animals
306
why cant you call internal transport cardiovascular
because not all animals have blood vessels
307
what is the driving dynamic for internal transport
multicellularity, effecient transport, bulk flow dynamics
308
what are the components of internal transport system
hearts, vasculature, and blood
309
what is a heart
muscular pump generating pressure cycles with 2 major configurations
310
what are the two major configurations of a heart
chambered or tubular
311
what does it mean for a heart to be neurogenic
nerve cells trigger activation of the muscle
312
what heart type is usually associated with neurogenic
tubular heart
313
what is myogenic heart
special muscle tissue with pace maker function
314
what heart type is associated with myogenic
chambered hearts
315
what organisms usually have tubular hearts
arthropods
316
which heart type is best for active lifestyle
chambered (except in insects)
317
which heart type has a higher pressure and a higher flow rate
chambered hearts
318
what organisms have chambered hearts
vertebrates and cephalopods
319
what kind of contractions does a tubular heart have
peristaltic
320
what does it mean for vasculature to be open
very few vessels (more so extensions of the heart instead of strict vessels)
321
what does it mean for vasculature to be closed
can have some open cavities but have many blood vessels
322
where can you find an open cavity in the vasculature of vertebrates (closed)
in sinus of liver
323
what is the function of an artery
direct blood away from the heart
324
what are capillaries
uncountable microscopic vessels
325
how thick are capilaries
1 cell layer thickness
326
what is the function of capillaries
gas exchange occurs here since walls are thin enough
327
what is the function of veins
direct blood back to the heart
328
what is blood
moving fluid of plasma and formed elements
329
what is the historic name for blood
hemolymph
330
how much of blood is usually plasma
usually around 90%
331
what do atria recieve
they are recieving chambers for venous blood
332
the blood flow through body is focused about what
focused about gas exchange to support the aerobic needs of the organism
333
blood flows along ____
pressure gradient
334
when blood pressure levels increase the organism is in___
systole
335
when blood pressure levels decrease the organism is in ___
diastole
336
why does circulation in mammals have two circuits
to optimize oxygen delivery/co2 removal
337
what is the basic anatomy of the heart
RA LA RV LV
338
where does the pulmonary circuit flow from
RV to LA
339
where does the pulmonary trunk go to
pulmonary trunk to lungs to pulmonary veins
340
where does the systemic circuit flow from
LV to RA
341
what artery is associated with the systemic circuit
aorta
342
where does the aorta flow to
aorta to body to vena cava
343
which circuit (systemic or pulmonary) is stronger
systemic is 5x stronger than pulmonary (has to send blood further through body)
344
what happens if theres too much pressure in pulmonary
edema
345
what is edema
drowning in your own tissue fluids
346
what are the main muscles in the heart
superficial sinospiral, deep sinospiral, superficial bulbospiral
347
what do the muscles of the heart allow for
increased pressure
348
what are the valves of the heart
atrioventricular (bicuspid(mitral) and tricuspid), senilunar
349
what helps to stabilize valves when open and closing in heart
the chordae tensonae
350
when heart is relaxed what state is it in
diastole
351
when heart is contracting what state is it in
systole
352
what is the basic 4 step heart cycle
atrial systole ventricular diastole
ventricular systole atrial diastole
atrial diastole ventricular diastole
repeat
353
how does the heart cycle change when excercising
shorten the length of A and V diastole in step 3
354
how many heart beats per minute is average for a mammal
70 beats per minute
355
how long is atrial systole
0.1s
356
how long is ventricular systole
0.2s
357
how long is diastole
0.5 seconds
358
how much thicker is the left ventricle from the right ventrical
left ventrical is 3x thicker than right
359
what is the main function of a valve in a heart
to keep blood flowing in the correct direction
360
what side is the tricuspid valve on
on the right
361
what side is the mitral(bicuspid) valve on
on the left
362
what happens when the heart gets too muscular
hypertrophy
363
action potential in hearts has what two major phases
depolarization and repolarization
364
what is depolarization
cells become less negatively changed
365
what is repolarization
cells return to the RMP
366
who realized electrical field disturbance of heart can be masured at skin surface
willem einthoven
367
what is an EKG
electrocardiogram
368
what are the 3 pirnciple waves of the ekg
p wave, qrs wave, t wave
369
what is the p wave
depolarization of atria
370
what is the qrs wave
depolarization of ventricles
371
what is the t wave
repolarization of ventricles
372
what is the pr interval
transit time for action potential to go from sa node and through av node
373
what is pr segment
av delay
374
what is qt inerval
complete timeline of ventricular action potential
375
what is st segment
depolarization plateau
376
what is the function of einthovens triangle
shows where net electrical axis is for the heart
377
what is the electrical axis of the heart
mean direction of current flow
378
how do you determine the electrical axis of the heart
by comparing signal properties from 3 limbs
379
what is the first heart sound
closing of the atrial ventricular valve
380
what is the closing of the atrial ventricular valve
start of ventricular systole
381
what is the second heart sound
closing of the semi lunar vales
382
what does the closing of the semi lunar valves signal
end of ventricular systole
383
what is an EKG (ECG)
electrocardiogram
384
when are the semilunar valves open
only open when pressure in ventricles is higher than pressure in atria
385
what is the ejection phase
when pressure is enough to push blood through valves
386
what is the formula for how much blood is ejected in a heart cycle
EDV-ESV=Stroke volume
387
what is EDV
end diastolic volume
388
what is ESV
end systolic volume
389
what is diastasis
a brief situation where blood leaves ventricles even though atrial pressure is slightly higher
390
what is isovolumetric relaxation
semilunar valves close as vestricles relax
391
what is ventricular filling due to
due to inertia
392
when is passive return used
as long as atrial pressure is higher than ventricular pressure the atriaventricular valve will be open
393
which circuit is high pressure and which is low pressure
systemic is high, pulmonary is low
394
how much blood remains in atria at all times
around 40-50ml
395
what is the blood remaining in the atria
end systolic volume
396
what is the p wave
synchronous contraction of the left and right atria
397
what are the three steps to ventricular systole
isovolumetric contraction, ejection phase, diastasis (inertia)
398
what is ventricular diastole
isovolumetric relaxation
399
when is the atrioventricular valve open
during atrial systole, during ventricular filling
400
when is the atrioventricular valve closed
isoventricular contraction, ventricular ejection, isovolumetric relaxation
401
when is the aortic valve open
ventricular ejection
402
during atrial systole the ventricles are already filled, why is blood still put into the ventricles
its a sort of topping off of the tank, its not a meaningful impact of the heart during rest
403
what is the p wave
atrial systole
404
what is the qrs wave
isovolumetric contraction
405
what is the t wave
ventricular ejection
406
what is end diastolic volume
maximum volume in ventricles when atria in systole
407
what is the approximate EDV
120ml
408
what is cardiac output
amount of blood pumped per unit time (L/min)
409
what is the approximate cardiac output for one circuit
5-6L/circuit of circulation
410
why does the amount of oxygen in the blood matter for aerobic organisms
to prevent hypoxia
411
how many liters of blood is pumped per minute for most adult humans
25-27 liters
412
what is stroke volume
amount of blood ejected per heart beat
413
how do you calculate cardiac output
HR x SV = CO
414
what is tachycardia
heart beating excessively fast, ventricles not able to fill before ejecting blood
415
whats the max amount of blood a human can pump in exercise
max is 35L for amazing athletes
416
what fold of increase can heart rate have at resting versus excercising
heart rate can have 3 fold increase
417
what fold of increase can stroke volume have at resting versus excercising
stroke volume can have 2 fold increase
418
what does HCN channels stand for
hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotides
419
what are HCN channels
different cyclic nucleotides when make k influx
420
what is the SA node RMP
-65mV
421
what is the myocardial cell RMP
-85mv
422
what are the excitable tissues of the heart
SA node, AV node, bundle of His, purkinje fibers
423
whats the reason to have myogenic specialized muscle tissue
to activate the heart and transfer action potential
424
where is the SA node
right atrium
425
what does SA stand for
sinoatrial
426
what kind of cells are in the SA node
cells that have autorythmisity (pacemaker potential)
427
what is a cellular pacemaker
cells spontaneously depolarizing
428
what does RMP stand for
resting membrane potential
429
what is RMP due to
K efflux
430
what is pacemaker potential driven by
sodium influx
431
what action potential do cells have in SA node
100 AP/min
432
where is the AV node
at the boundary between atria and ventricles
433
which node has a higher pacemaker potential
SA has higher
434
what is AV delay
0.05m/s
435
where do you get specialized conduction
bundle of His and purkinje fibers
436
what are the bundle of his and purkinje fibers
elongate cells specialized for rapid AP conduction
437
what is a rapid AP conduction value
5m/s
438
what are cells of node trying to act like
trying to act like axons
439
when are voltage gated calcium channels open
when SA node pacemaker potential has hit threshhold
440
what are between cardiac muscle cells
gap junctions
441
what do gap junctions allow for
ion transfer (electrical charge transfer)
442
what do inactive voltage gated sodium channels allow for
relaxation
443
what ensures relaxation
protractive repolarization
444
what does bundle of his and purkinje fibers cause
rapid depolarization of ventricles
445
what is the parasympathetic division
autonomic nervous system
446
what nerve is part of the parasympathetic division
vagus nerve
447
what number cranial nerve is the vagus nerve
10
448
what does the vagus nerve do
reduces the heart rate
449
what innervates the SA node and the myocardium
parasympathetic division
450
what reduces heart rate so diastole lasts longer
parasympathetic division
451
what causes HCN channels
cGMP
452
what does RMP reduction do
hyperpolarizes SA node
453
what does cGMP do
reduces cytoplasmic Ca
454
when does vagus activity decrease
when exercising
455
what nerve takes over when vagus is decreased
sympathetic
456
what does the sympathetic nerve give
norepinephrine mostly as a neurotransmitter (and a little bit of epinephrine)
457
when does calcium pool in the body
when heart beat increases
458
why does calcium pool with increased HR
not enough time in diastole to remove it
459
what does Na act as when calcium is pooling
acts as a cotransport agent
460
is the vagus nerve sympathetic is parasympathetic
parasympathetic
461
whats the major nerve in sympathetic
accelerator nerve
462
what does the sympathetic division do
releases norepinephrine, activates adrenal medulla to release epinephrine, increases HR
