Approaches Flashcards
(106 cards)
1
Q
What is the behaviourist approach?
A
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
2
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Learning by association.
3
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Learning through consequences.
4
Q
5 assumptions of the behaviourist approach.
A
- Only interested in studying observable behaviour
- Controlled research using lab studies (usually animals as behaviour can be observed)
- All behaviour is learned.
- We are born as a blank slate- tabula rasa
- There are two main forms of learning (classical and operant conditioning).
5
Q
Classical conditioning- Pavlov 1927
A
Unconditioned stimulus -> unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus -> unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response.
6
Q
Operant conditioning- Skinner 1953
A
Positive reinforcement- behaviour is rewarded
Negative reinforcement- avoiding something unpleasant
Punishment- unpleasant consequence of behaviour.
Reinforcement increases likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
7
Q
Real world application of the behaviourist approach.
A
- Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems which can be used in places such as prisons.
- Rewarding behaviour with tokens which can be used for privileges increases likelihood of repeating behaviour.
8
Q
Ethical issues and the behaviourist approach.
A
Skinner’s rat research allowed behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over their experimental ‘subjects’.
Ethical issues as animals were kept below natural weight to make sure they were always hungry and kept in harsh cramped conditions.
9
Q
Environmental determinism and the behaviourist approach.
A
Limitation as it sees all behaviour as conditioned by past experiences.
Skinner suggested everything we do is a sum total of our reinforcement history, this ignores any possible influence of free will may have on our behaviour as our past conditioning history decides the outcome.
This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making process on behaviour- as suggested by the cognitive approach.
10
Q
Well controlled research and the behaviourist approach.
A
+ Focues on the measuring of observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings and broke down behaviour into stimulus-response units which removed extraneous variables and allowing causality to be established.
- This may have oversimplified the learning process and ignores human thoughts (such as social learning theory and cognitive approach). This suggests learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone.
11
Q
What is social learning theory?
A
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory (classical and operant conditioning) with the role of cognitive factors.
12
Q
Who proposed social learning theory?
A
Bandura
13
Q
What is imitation?
A
Copying the behaviour of others.
14
Q
What is identification?
A
A desire to be associated with a particular person or group because they possess certain desirable characteristics.
15
Q
What is modelling?
A
From an observer’s perspective modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstartion of a specific behaviour that may then be imitated by an observer.
16
Q
What is vicarious reinforcement?
A
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
This is a key factor in imitation.
17
Q
What are mediational processes?
A
Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.
18
Q
What are the assumptions of SLT?
A
- Agrees with the behaviouist approach that behaviour is learned from experience.
- People learn through observation and imitation of others.
- Learning occurs both directly and indirectly through classical and operant conditioning.
19
Q
The role of vicarious reinforcement in SLT.
A
- Imitation usually only occurs if the behaviour is reinforced, not punished (vicarious reinforcement).
- Observes behaviour but will also see consequences of a behaviour.
20
Q
The role of mediational processes in SLT.
A
Four mediational processes were identified by bandura-
- Attention- the extent to which we notice behaviours
- Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered
- Reproduction- the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
- Motivation- the will to perform the behaviour
- The first two relate to learning and the other two relate to performance.
21
Q
The role of identification in SLT.
A
- People (especially children) are more likely to imitate people they identify with (identifcation).
- They will indentify with a role model and imitate the role model (modelling- this is what the role models behaviour is also called)
- Role models may not necessarily be physically present in the environment and a person becomes a role model if they possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status.
22
Q
Describe Bandura’s study A.
A
Bandura et al (1961)
- Original belief was that watching violence was cathartic.
- Lab study with two conditions
1. Watch a violent role model -> child agressive
2. Watch a non-violent role model -> child calm - This shows they imitate the role model
- However this lacks motivation (vicarious reinforcement)
23
Q
Describe Bandura’s study B.
A
Bandura and Walters 1963
Three conditions-
1. Role model rewarded -> agression highest
2. Role model punished -> agression lowest
3. ‘Control’ no reinforcement -> somewhere between
IV- condition
DV- how child acted
24
Q
Determinism and SLT.
A
Reciprocal determinism!!!
- Influenced by external environment but exert an influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform.
- This suggests there is some free will in the way we behave.
- This contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies free will.
25
Real-world application and SLT.
- Can explain cultural differences in behaviour.
- SLT principles such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement, can account for how children learn from others around them including the media and this can explain how social/cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies.
- Can help understand behaviours such as children coming to understand their gender role.
- This increases the value of the approach.
26
Limitation of SLT.
- Evidence was gathered through lab studies (scientific)
- Contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics
- The main prupose of the doll was to hit it and so children may have performed how they throught they were expected to
- Research may tell us little about how children naturally learn agression in everyday life (lacks mundane realism).
27
Strength of SLT.
+ Recognises importance of cognitive factors as neither classical not operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning of their own.
+ SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.
HOWEVER
- Ignores biological approach but Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential, he thought that learning itself was determined by the environment.
- Recent research shows that observational learning Bandura was talking about may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain which allow us to empathisw with and imitate other people.
28
What is the cognitive approach?
Focuses on how our mental processes affect behaviour.
29
What are internal mental processes?
'Private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.
30
What is schema?
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
31
What is inference?
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
32
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
33
What are assumptions of the cognitive approach?
- Internal mental processes can, and should be, studied scientifically.
- Processes such as memory, perception and thinking and studies indirectly by making inferences based off people's behaviour.
34
The role of schema and the cognitive approach.
- Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as moving a hand towards an object
- As we get older, our schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated. Adults have developed mentak representations for everything.
- Schema enable us to process lots of information quickly and this prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. However schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors.
35
Models and the cognitive approach.
- Cognitive psychologists use theoretical (abstract) and computer (concrete) models to understand internal mental processes.
- One important theoretical model is the information processing model which suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages and these include input, storage and retrieval.
- The above model is based on the way computers function.
36
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
- Brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans can be used to describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
- E.g. the link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD.
- The focus of cognitive neuroscience has recently expanded to include the use of computer generated models that are designed to 'read' the brain.
37
Determinism and the cognitive approach.
Soft determinism!!!
Human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can exert our free will at times.
On the other hand, hard determinism says all our behaviour is determined by factors other than our will, such as conditioning (behaviourist) and genes (biological).
38
Limitation of the cognitive approach.
Machine reductionism
- Compares the similarities between the human mind and a computer.
- Ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system.
- Research has found human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.
- This may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.
39
Real world application of the cognitive approach.
- Cognitive psychology has made an important contribution in the field of AI.
- These may revolutionise how we live in the future.
- Cognitive principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression (CBT) and have improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony (CI).
40
Strength of the cognitive approach.
+ Uses highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable, objective data.
+ Scientific
- Relies on inference instead of direct observation, it could be too abstract and theoretical in nature.
- Many studies lack mundane realism.
- Research on cognitive processes may lack external validity.
41
What is the biological approach?
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.
42
What are genes?
Genes make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features. Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring (inherited).
43
What is biological structure?
An arrangement or organisation of party to form an organ, system or living thing.
44
What is neurochemistry?
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate biological and psychological functioning.
45
What is a genotype?
The particular set of genes that a person possesses.
46
What is a phenotype?
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the envrionment.
47
What is evolution?
The changes in inhertited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
48
What are assumptions of the biological approach?
- Everything psychological is biological at first, so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body.
- The mind lives in the brain- meaning all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis (unlike cognitive approach sees the mental pocesses of the mind are separate from the brain).
49
Neurochemical basis of behaviour and the biological approach.
- Much of our thoughts and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain.
- This occurs using neurotransmitters.
- An imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorder.
- E.g. low levels of serotonin and OCD or overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia.
50
Genetic basis of behaviour and the biological approach.
- Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis.
- This is achieved by analysis concordance rates, if a characteristic is genetic we would expect all monozygotic twins to be concordant (100% same genes).
- The same would not be true for dizygotic twins who share about 50% of the same genes.
- In both cases, the environment is assumed to be constant.
51
Genotype and phenotype and the biological approach.
- Despite twins having the sames genes, the phenotype is different.
- This shows that the biological approach consists of both nature and nurture.
52
Evolution and behaviour and the biological approach.
- Natural selection is that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances and individual's survival will continue in future generations.
- The selection occurs becase some traits give the possessor certain advantages. The possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these traits.
53
Real-world application of the biological approach.
+ Promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs which increase levels of serotonin at synapses in the brain.
- Cipriani et al (2018) compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found variations in their effectiveness. Although most of the drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials, researchers concluded that the effects of antidepressants in general were 'mainly modest'.
- Challenges value of the biological approach as it suggests brain chemistry may not account for all cases of, for example depression.
54
Strength of the biological approach.
- Uses scientific methods of investigation
- Methods such as scanning techniques (fMRI and EEGs) can be used. These advances in technology mean that it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias.
- Based on objective and reliable data.
55
Disadvantage of natural selection.
Critics of Darwin's work claim that is not possiblr to falsify the theory of natural selection as we cannot show evolution happening, we can only deduce that it has taken place.
However others claim that the basic principles are supported by fossil records.
56
Limitation of the biological approach.
Biological determinism!!!
- Human behaviour is governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control.
- Phenotypes are heavily influenced by our environment and not even identical twins look and act the same.
- The biological approach is too simplistics and ignores the mediating effects of the enrionment.
57
What is the psychodynamic approach?
A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
58
What is the unconscious?
The part of the mind we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour.
59
What is the Id?
Entirely unconscious, the Id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand instant gratification.
60
What is the Ego?
The 'reality check' that balences the conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego.
61
What is the Superego?
The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self- how we ought to be.
62
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and the Superego.
63
What are psychosexual stages?
Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.
64
The role of the unconscious and the psychodynamic approach.
- Freud suggested that the part of our mind we know about is the conscious mind and is merely the 'tip of the iceberg'.
- The unconscious stores our biological drives and threatening and disturbing memories, which have been repressed.
- These can be accessed through dreams or through 'slips of the tongue' (parapraxes).
- Just under the surface of our conscious mind is the preconscious which contains thoughts and memories we can access quickly.
65
The structure of personality and the psychodynamic approach.
Freud described personality as 'tripartite'-
- The Id operates on the pleasure principle and gets what it wants- is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts. Present from birth and throughout life is entirely selfish.
- The Ego works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the Id and Superego, it does so by employing a number of defence mechanisms. Develops around age 2.
- The Superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage and is our internalised sense of wrong or right. Based on the morality principle it represents the moral standards of the child's same-gender parent and punishes the Ego for wrongdoing.
66
What are the five psychosexual stages?
```
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
```
67
Psychosexual stages and the psychodynamic approach.
- Each stage, apart from latency, is marked by a differnet conflict the child must resolve before getting to the next stage.
- Any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes 'stuck' and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage to adult life.
68
Defence mechanisms and the psychodynamic approach.
- Ego balances conflicting demands between the Id and Superego and has help in the form of defence mechanisms.
- Unconscious
- Ensures Ego can prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas.
- However often involve some sort form of distortion of reality and as long-term solutions are regarded aspsychologically unhealthy and undesireable.
69
What are the six defence mechanisms?
```
Repression
Denial
Projection
Displacement
Regression
Sublimation
```
70
Real-world application of the psychodynamic approach.
+ Introduced psychoanalysis which at the time was the first attempt to treat mental illnesses psychologically rather than physically.
+ Psychoanalysis led to many modern-day talking therapies such as counselling.
+ This shows the value of the approach in creating new treatments.
- Psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate or even harmful for people with serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia.
- This shows that Freudian therapy and theory may not apply yo all mental disorders.
71
Strength of the psychodynamic approach.
- Can explain human behaviour and is a key force in psychology and can be used to explain a wide range of phenomena such as personality development and gender identity.
- Also significant in drawing attention to the conenction between childhood experiences and our later development.
- Overall positive impact on psychology.
72
Determinism and the psychodynamic approach.
Psychic determinism!!!
- Suggests much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts in childhood.
- Freud believed there was no such thing as an accident.
- Critics believe this is an extreme view as it dismisses any possible influence of free will.
73
Limitation of the psychodynamic approach.
- Untestable
- It has been argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification.
- Not open to empirical testing.
- Many concepts are at subconscious level and so are impossible to test.
- Ideas were based on subjective people such as Little Hans so hard to generalise.
74
What is the oedipus complex?
- Occurs at the phallic stage (ages 3-5) in males.
- Id has unconscious sexual desire for mum and the Ego develops fear of the father (castration anxiety) meaning there is conflict.
- Child will identify with the father and internalises father's morality and so the Superego develops.
75
What is the electra complex?
- Occurs at the phallic stage (ages 3-5) in females.
- Id has 'penis envy' and the Ego realises the child will never change and then blames the mum which causes conflict.
- Converting the desire for a penis into a desire for babies, will mean the child will identify with and internalise mum's morality.
- The Superwgo will then develop.
76
Little Hans case study.
- Fear of horses -> projection of a fear of his father (castration anxiety) -> oedipus complex
- Non-scientific
- Case study so hard to generalise
- Based on Freud's subjective opinion
- Concept cannot be tested.
77
What is humanistic psychology?
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons's capacity for self-determination.
78
What is free will?
The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biology or external factors.
79
What is self-actualisation?
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one's full potential- becoming what you are capable of.
80
What is the hierachy of needs?
A five-levelled hierachical sequence in which basic physiological needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as self-esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved.
81
What is the self?
The ideas and values that characterise 'I' and 'me' and includes perception and valuing of 'what I am' and 'what I can do'.
82
What is congruence?
The aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
83
What are conditions of worth?
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their child.
84
Free will and the humanistic approach.
- All other approaches are deterministic, even the cognitive approach is constrained by the limits of our cognitive system.
- Humanistic psychology says we have free will and are essentially self determining.
- People are still affected by external forces, but are also active agents who can determine their own development.
- Can be referred to as a person-centred approach in psychology.
85
Name two main humanistic psychologists.
Rogers and Maslow
86
Maslow's hierachy of needs and the humanistic approach.
- Our primary goal is self-actualisation but other needs must be met before this can be achieved.
- A person is only able to prohress through the hierachy once the current need in the sequence has been met.
87
What are the five levels of Maslow's hierachy of needs?
```
Self-actualisation
Esteem
Love and belonging
Safety needs
Physiological needs
```
88
Why do humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of being human?
Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated.
Not everyone will manage this, however, and there are important psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their potential.
89
The self, congruence and conditions of worth and humanistic psychology.
- Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individual's concept of self must be equivalent, or have congruence with their ideal self.
- If too big a gap exists between the two 'selves' the person will experience low self esteem, this will make it hard to self-actualise due to a state of incongruence.
- Client-centred therapy can help people cope with the problems of everyday living.
- Many adult problems such as worthlessness, have their roots in childhood and could be explained by a lack unconditional positive regard which may be because parents had conditions of love when they were a child.
90
What is Roger's client-centred therapy?
- Lead to modern day counselling.
- Client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere that is supportive and non-judemental.
- Therapist should provide client with genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.
- Aim of Rogerian therapy is to reduce level of incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self and increase the clients feeling of self-worth.
91
Lack of reductionism and the humanistic approach.
+ Humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.
+ May have more validity than alternative approaches by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world context.
- Reductionist approach may be more scientific as they are more likely to have an IV and DV to establish causality.
- Lack of empirical data to support the claims of the humanistic approach.
92
Strength of the humanistic approach.
Optimistic!
- Promote a positive image of the human condition and bring back the person into psychology.
- Freud saw humans as prisoners of their past, in contrast, humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good and free to work towards their potential.
- Offers a refreashing optimistic approach.
93
Weakness of the humanistic approach.
- Critics have argued that humanistic psychology has had a very limited impact in the real world, especially when compared to other approaches.
- The approach has been described as a loose set of abstract ideas.
- However Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling and Maslow's hierachy of neds has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace.
94
Cultural bias and the humanistic approach.
- Many ideas that are central to the humanistic approach are more associated with individualist cultures, such as individual freedom and personal growth.
- Collectivist cultures emphasise more the needs of the group and interdependence.
- In such countries the ideal of humanistic psychology may not be as important as other- such as self-actualisation.
- Therefore, it is possible that the approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed.
95
Emergence of psychology of science on a timeline.
```
Empiricism- 17th century
Philosophy- 17th century
Darwin- 1859
Wundt- 1879
John B Watson- 1913
Freud- 1920s
Rogers and Maslow- 1950s
Cognitive approach- 1950s
Bandura- 1960s
Biological approach- 1980s onwards
Cognitive neuroscience- 21st century
```
96
Empiricism (emergence of psychology)
17th century
John Locke suggested nothing is innate and we are data driven.
Origin of the behaviourist approach.
97
Philosophy (emergence of psychology)
17th century
| Descartes introduced the idea of dualism which suggests mind and body are separate.
98
Darwin (emergence of psychology)
1859
Theory of evolution
Publish the book 'On the origin of the species'
Origin of the biological approach
99
Wundt (emergence of psychology)
1879
Opened the first experimental psychology lab in Germany
Introspection- breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures
Structuralism- isolating the structure of consciousness
100
John B Watson (emergence of psychology)
1913
Wrote 'Psychology as the behaviourist views it'
B.F Skinner establishes with Watson the behaviourist approach
101
Freud (emergence of psychology)
1920s
| Developed the psychodynamic approach
102
Rogers and Maslow (emergence of psychology)
1950s
Develop the humanistic approach
Rejects psychodynamic and behaviourist approach
Importance of free will and self determination
103
Cognitive approach (emergence of psychology)
1950s
Cognitive approach introduced
Reintroduces the study of mental processes
104
Bandura (emergence of psychology)
1960s
Proposes social learning theory
Connects cognitive and behaviourist approaches
105
Biological approach (emergence of psychology)
1980s onwards
| Due to improved technology, the biological approach becomes the dominant scientific perspective
106
Cognitive neuroscience (emergence of psychology)
21st century
| Brings together the cognitive and biological approaches
