Gender Flashcards

Question

What is the role of hormones in sex and gender?

Answer 1

Gender development comes about through the influence of hormones. Males and female produce many of the same hormones but in different concentrations.

Answer 2

During menstruation, women can experience heightened emotion and irritability. This is referred to as premenstrual tension when these effects become a diagnosable condition. It has successfully been used as a defense in some cases in shoplifitng and murder.

Answer 3

It stimulates lactation and also reduces cortisol and facilitates bonding. As males produce less it fuelled the stereotype that men are less interested in intimacy within a relationship. However, evidence suggests that both sexes prduce oxytocin in roughly equal amount during amorous activities.

Answer 4

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a rare disorder that causes high prenatal levels of testosterone in both females and males. However it is more obvious in newborn girls who may have ambiguous genitals due to the masculinising effect of the male hormones. Berenbaum and Bailey found that females with CAH are often more likely to be described as tomboys and exibit higher levels of aggression.

Answer 5

They are reductionist and so therefore reduce everything down to chromosomes and hormones. The cognitive approach would draw attention to the influence of scheme. The psychodynamic approach would acknowledge maturation as a factor but point to the importance of childhood experiences such as interaction withtin the family. This suggests that gender is more complex than its biological influences alone.

Answer 6

They are ignored. Hofstede et al. claim that gender roles around the world are much more of a consequence of social norms rather than biology. This could be in relation to whether the culture is collectivist or individualist (UK and USA. Individualist cultures are more likely to include traditional masculine traits. This challenges the biological explanation and suggests that social factor may be more important in shaping gender behaviour.

Answer 7

There is evidence which supports the role of sex hormones in gender development even in mature males. Wang et al. looked at 227 hypogonadal men (fail to produce normal levels of tesosterone) testosterone therapy for 180 days. Changes were observed in body shape, muscle strength and sexual function across the period. This shows testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal. In a double-blind placebo study O'Connor et al. increased testosterone levels in young men and there was no significant increases in the interactional and non-interactional components of sexual behaviour. There was also no changes in mood or agression suggesting that additional testosterone may have no effect on behaviour- however this does not challenge the role of testosterone in early development.

Answer 8

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms.

Answer 9

A syndrome affecting males in which an individual's genotype has an extra X chromosome (in addition to the normal XY).

Answer 10

A chromosomal disorder in which affected women have only one X chromosome (XO).

Answer 11

1 in 600 males.

Answer 12

Breast development Reduced body hair Underdeveloped genitals Problems with co-ordination.

Answer 13

Poorly developed language skills Passive and shy Lack interest in sexual activity May not respond well to stressful situations.

Answer 14

1 in 5000 biological females

Answer 15

No mentrual cycle Ovaries do not develop Broad chest 'Webbed' neck

Answer 16

Higher than average reading ability Low performance on spatial and mathematical tasks Experience difficulty 'fitting in' Socially immature.

Answer 17

It can help with the management of Turner and Klinefelter syndrome. Herlihy et al. 2011 conducted a study with 87 australian individuals with Klinefelter's and found that those diagnosed and treated at a young age experienced significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood.

Answer 18

In general, only the people with exaggerated symptoms of Klinefelters are diagnosed and this created a sampling issue. Bodoa et al. (2009) report that prospective studies have produced an accurate picture of the characteristics and many people with the syndrome do not experience significant psychological problems and many are highly sccessful. This suggests that the typical picture of Klinefelter's and Turner's may be exaggerated.

Answer 19

It contributes to the nature/nurture debate. By comapring people who have the syndrome with chromosomal-typical individuals, it becomes possible to see differnces between the two groups. It may be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure. This supports the view that innate 'nature' influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour.

Answer 20

There is not a causal relationship between the atypical chromosomal patterns associated with the disorders and the differences in behaviour seen in these individuals. It could be that envrionmental and social influence are more responsible. For example people with Turner syndrome could be treated 'immaturely' by people around them and so are socially immature. This shows that it may be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences in people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are due to nature.

Answer 21

A child recognises that they are a boy or a girl and possesses the ability to label others as such. In Kohlberg's theory, gender identity is acquired around age 2 years.

Answer 22

Happens around age 4 years. A child understands that their own gender is fixed and they will be a man or woman when they are older.

Answer 23

Usually reached by age 6 or 7 years. A child realises that gender remains over time and situations. They begin to identify with people of their own gender and start to behave in stereotypical gender-appropriate ways.

Answer 24

Yes- gradual changes between stages

Answer 25

Gender identity. Around age 2. The understanding of gender does not stretch past simple labelling. Often children of this age group do not view gender as fixed.

Answer 26

Gender stability. Around age 4. Realise they will stay the same gender but cannot apply this logic to other people. They are easily confused by external changes in appearance.

Answer 27

Gender constancy. Around age 6. Recognise gender stays constant across time and situations.

Answer 28

Find gender-appropriate role models. This connects to social learning theory.

Answer 29

Gender constancy

Answer 30

Damon (1977) told children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls. Four year olds said it was fine for George to play with dolls but the six year olds viewed it as wrong. They had started to develop gender stereotyping. This suggests children who achieved constancy have formed stereotypes regarding gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 31

Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that children as young as four reported 'feeling good' about playing with gender-appropriate toys and 'bad' about doing the opposite. This contradicts what Kohlberg's theory would predict but may instead support gender schema theory.

Answer 32

Supporting research relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender constancy. Bem (1989) criticised the methodology used in many studies of the link between gender and cognitive development. The key test of gender constancy in such studies is whether a child understands that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance and context. Bem argues that it is not surprising children are confused by this as in our culture this is how we differentiate one gender to another. The best way to differentiate gender is through physical appearance which children do not understand. Bem found 40% of 3-5 year olds were able to demonstrate constancy if shown a naked photo to the child first. This suggests the typical way of testing gender constancy may misrepresent what children actually know.

Answer 33

There may be different degrees of gender constancy. Martin et al. (2002) praise Kohlberg's theory for recognising that children's understanding of their own and other people's gender guides their thoughts and behaviour. They suggest that there may be different degrees of gender constancy. An initial degree may orient children to the importance of gender and this may develop before the age of 6. A second degree of constancy may heighten children's responsiveness to gender norms, particularly under conditions of conflict, such as choosing appropriate clothes or attitudes. This suggests that constancy may be a more gradual process and may begin earlier than Kohlberg thought.

Answer 34

Jean Piaget

Answer 35

Before conservation a child cannot recognise that a superficial change in appearance does not mean an actual change. Children develop conservation around ages 5-6.

Answer 36

Jean Piaget conducted his 3 mountains study. The children were given 4 different perspectives (theirs, the other person's and either side) and the child had to choose the one the person opposite them was seeing. Many children chose the one they saw as they cannot see other's perspectives.

Answer 37

An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience. Such schema guide a person's understanding of their own gender and stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour in general.

Answer 38

Martin and Halverson (1981)

Answer 39

They share the view that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning rather than by passively observing and imitating role models, which social learning theory suggests.

Answer 40

Around the ages of 2-3 years.

Answer 41

They will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema. This contrasts Kohlberg's view that this process only begins after they have progressed through all three stages, around age 7 with gender constancy.

Answer 42

Gender schema expands to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits. For young children, schema are likely to be formed around stereotypes, such as boys playing with trucks and girls with dolls, and provide a framework that directs experience as well as the child's understanding of itself.

Answer 43

Children have a fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender.

Answer 44

Schema that are appropriate for their own gender- this children have a much better understanding of this.

Answer 45

The schema for the other gender in which children and much less likely to pay attention to and remember.

Answer 46

Children develop elaborate schema for both genders, as opposed to just their own.

Answer 47

Martin and Halverson (1983) found that children under the age of 6 are more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender-inappropriate behaviour when tested a week later. Children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender-inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them. This provides support as GST predicts that children under 6 would do this, whereas Kohlberg would predict this would happen when the children are older.

Answer 48

Gender identity probably develops earlier than Martin and Halverson suggested. Zosuls et al. (2009) conducted a longitudinal study of 82 children who looked at the onset of gender identity. Data was obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children's language from age 9-21 months, alongside videotaped analysis of the children at play. The key measure of gender identity was taken to be how and when children labelled themselves as a 'boy' or 'girl'. This occurred on average at 19 months- almost as soon as children can communicate which suggests that have a gender identity before this but cannot communicate this.

Answer 49

It may not be appropriate to argue about specific ages for Martin and Halverson's theory. They suggest that the key point is the shifts in a child's thinking and that the ages are averages and not obsoletes. Children could move through these stages faster or slower than others. This suggests that Zosuls et al.'s findings are not a fundamental criticism of the theory.

Answer 50

Freud's explanation of how a boy resolves his love for his mother and feelings of rivalry towards his father by identifying with his father.

Answer 51

Neo-Freudian Carl Jung suggested that in girls, an attraction to and envy of their father is resolved through identification with their mother.

Answer 52

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because the person/group possesses certain desirable characteristics.

Answer 53

An individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour of another.

Answer 54

Oral Anal Phallic Latent Genital

Answer 55

3 to 6 years

Answer 56

Gender development . Prior to this stage children have no concept of gender identity, they have no understanding of 'male' or 'female' so do not categorise themselves or others in that way.

Answer 57

Phallic stage

Answer 58

Boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and they harbour a jealous and murderous hate fir their father who stands in the way of the boy possessing his mother. However, the boy also recognises that his father is more powerful than he is and then develops castration anxiety. To resolve the context, the boys gives up his lover for his mother and begins to identify with his father.

Answer 59

Girls experience penis envy, seeing themselves and their mother as being in competition for their father's love. Girls develop a double-resentment towards their mother. First, the mother is a love rival standing in the way of the father and second the mother is blamed by the daughter for having no penis. Over time, girls will come to accept that they will never have a penis and will substitute penis envy with the desire to have children, identifying with their mothers as a result.

Answer 60

Children of both sexes identify (identification) with the same-gender parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes. Boys adopt the attitudes and values of the father and girls adopt those of their mother. This involves children taking on board the gender identity of the same-gender parent, a process known as internalisation. Eventually, at the end of the phallic stage, both sexes receive a 'second-hand' gender identity all at once.

Answer 61

Evidence for the Oedipus complex. Hans was a 5 year old boy with a fear of being bitten by a horse. Hans's fear appeared to have stemmed from an incident when he had seen a horse collapse and die in a street. However, Freud's interpretation was that Hans' fear represented his fear of castration . Freud suggested that Hans had transferred his fear of his father onto horses via the unconscious defence mechanism of displacement.

Answer 62

Freud has often been criticised for the lack of rigour in his methods. Many of his concepts such as castration anxiety are untestable because they are largely unconscious- this contrasts other theories of gender that are based on objective, verifiable evidence. This makes his theory pseudoscientific as his key ideas cannot be falsified and proved wrong. This questions the validity of Freud's theory as it is not based on sound scientific evidence.

Answer 63

Freud did very little research from women and Carl Jung created most of the theories. The penis envy theory is very androcentric as the era Freud was living in. The ideas that women's gender development is founded on a desire to want to be like a man is an androcentric bias.

Answer 64

There is some support for the role of the Oedipus complex in gender development. Rekers and Morey (1990) rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 years based on interviews with their families and children themselves. Of those who were judged to be 'gender disturbed', 75% had neither their biological father nor a substitute father living with them. This suggests that being raised with no father may have a negative impact upon gender identity.

Answer 65

The relationship between absent fathers and problems of gender identity is not supported. Bos and Sandfort (2010) compared data from 63 children where both parents were homosexual/lesbian and 68 from heterosexual families. Children raised by homosexual families felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes and were less likely to assume their own gender was superior, but there was no differences in terms of psychosocial adjustment or gender identity. This contradicts Freud's theory as it suggests that fathers are not necessary for healthy gender identity development.

Answer 66

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

Answer 67

Attention Retention Motivation Reproduction

Answer 68

Culture Parents Media Peers

Answer 69

Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypically gender-appropriate. The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement. It is through differential reinforcement that a child learns their gender identity.

Answer 70

If the consequences of another person's behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child. If the consequences of the behaviour are seen to be unfavourable, the behaviour is less likely to be copies. An example of this would be a boy being teased by another boy for playing with a doll.

Answer 71

The process whereby a child attaches themselves to a person who is seen to display desirable characteristics - these people are known as role models. Role models are usually the same gender as the child.

Answer 72

The precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer. The same term is also used to explain learning from the observer's perspective. An example of this would be when a young girl copies her mother setting the table - she is modelling the behaviour she witnessed.

Answer 73

It does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age. The general implication of SLT is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age. However it is illogical that children who are age 2 learn the same as children who are 9. This conflicts with Kohlberg's Theory which says that children do not become active in their gender development until they reach gender constancy.

Answer 74

It can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour. There has been a less clear-cut distinction between what people regard as stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviour in many societies today when compare to the mid 1900s. There has been no corresponding change in peoples basic biology within this time and so SLT explains this better than the biological approach. The shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years has meant new forms of gender behaviour are now unlikely to be punished and may be reinforced.

Answer 75

There is research support. Smith and Lloyd (1978) involved babies aged 4-6 months who (irrespective of sex) were dressed half the time in boys' clothes and half the time in girls' clothes. When observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be a 'boy' were more likely to be given a hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous and active. When the same babies dressed as girls they were mire likely to be handed a doll and told they were 'pretty'. This suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age through differential reinforcement.

Answer 76

The ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society.

Answer 77

Communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available.

Answer 78

A set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered typical of one gender and atypical of the other.

Answer 79

Cultural differences (nurture)

Answer 80

Investigated gender roles of cultural groups across Papua New Guinea. - The Arapesh were gentle and responsive (stereotype of women in west) - The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (stereotype of men in west) - The Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life whereas men were passive and considered to be 'decorative' (reverse of stereotypes in west). This suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender and that gender roles may be culturally determines.

Answer 81

Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents. In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources whereas men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner. Munroe and Munroe (1975) revealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines.

Answer 82

The media may give information to men and women in terms of the likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviours. Seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child's belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future. Mitra et al. (2019) analysed the attitudes of people in India who had watched a detective drama which was designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes. Girls who watched the programme were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than non-viewers. This suggested that their self-efficacy had changed.

Answer 83

The media portrays men as independent whereas women are depicted as dependent and unambitious (Bussey and Bandura 1999). Furnham and Farragher (2000) found in TV adverts that men were more likely to be shown in an autonomous roles in a professional context whereas women were often occupying familial roles within domestic settings. This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 84

Mead has been accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study. Freeman (1983) conducted a follow-up study of people from Papua New Guinea and argued that Mead's findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants and her preconceptions influenced her reading of events. This is an example of both observer bias and ethnocentrism and means her conclusions may not be accurate.

Answer 85

Hofstede (2001) argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere. This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies. In traditional societies women still occupy the role of house-maker as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures. This suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context.

Answer 86

Cultivation theory argues that more time individuals spend 'living' in the media world, the more likely they are to believe that this reflects social reality. Bond and Drogos (2014) found a positive correlation between time spent watching Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards sex. This effect was still found to be true when researchers controlled for the influence of such factors as existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs. This suggests the media 'cultivates' perception of reality and this effects gender behaviour.

Answer 87

There may not be a causal relationship. Durkin (1985) argues that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages. In fact, norms within the child's family may be the bigger determinant in the child's gender attitudes and behaviour. If media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family then these are likely to be reinforced by the child's mind. If not, then such representations are likely to be rejected.

Answer 88

Used to describe when a person experiences discomfort or distress because there is a mismatch between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity. This is also the clinical diagnosis for someone who doesn't feel comfortable with the sex they were assigned at birth.

Answer 89

The BST is the structure involved in emotional responses and also in male sexual behaviour in rats. This area is larger in men than women and has been found to be female-sized and transgender females. In a study with 6 mtf transgender individuals it showed that they had an average BST neuron number in the female range (Kruiver et al. 2000)

Answer 90

Coolidge et al (2002) assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) for evidence of gender dysphoria. They found that 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors. Thus suggests there is a biological component.

Answer 91

There may be other brain difference associated with gender dysphoria. Rametti et al. (2011) studies another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain- white matter as there are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in males or females. They analysed the brains of both male and female transgender individuals before they began hormone treatment . In most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified themselves as being rather than their biological sex.

Answer 92

Its central claims have been challenged. Hulshoff Pol et al (2006) studies changes in transgender individuals' brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment. The scans showed that the size of the BST changed significantly over that period. The study by Kruijver et al. studies the BST post-mortem and after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment .

Answer 93

Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise social relationships within the family as the cause of gender dysphoria. They argue that gender dysphoria in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. the boy fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety, and the danger of separation removed. Therefore becomes the mother and adopts a woman's gender identity. Stoller (1973) found in interviews GD biological males display overly close relationships with their mothers suggesting stronger female identification and thus conflicted gender identity in the long term.

Answer 94

Oversey and Person's explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applies to transgender women. Rekers (1986) found that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father then the fear of separation from the mother.

Answer 95

Cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia in New Guinea. This causes some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth. At puberty they produce an increased amount of testosterone so their biology develops. This condition was common amoung the Sambia and routinely accepted that some are 'females-then-males'. Since this culture has had contact with other cultures however, the 'females-then-males' are now judges as having a pathological form of gender dysphoria.

Answer 96

Gender identity does not reflect underlying biological differences between people and instead these concepts are 'invented' by societies. For people who experience gender dysphoria , the gender 'confusion' arises because society forces people to be either a man or woman and they must 'pick a side' and act accordingly. From this perspective, gender dysphoria is not a pathological condition but a social phenomenon which arises when people are required to choose one of two particular paths.

Answer 97

Not all cultures have two gender. This can be seen in the Sambia of New Guinea. This fact is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of male and female, The fact the increasing number of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to 'catch up' with the lived experience of many. This suggests hat gender identity and dysphoria are best seen as a social construction rather than biological fact.

Gender Flashcards

(127 cards)