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Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

Who was the father of psychology?

A

Wilhelm Wundt

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2
Q

Why was Wilhelm Wundt the father of psychology?

A

He separated psychology from philosophy and worked in a more structured way
He wrote the first book on psychology

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3
Q

When and where did Wundt open his lab?

A

Germany in 1879
He aimed to examine reaction times and human consciousness

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4
Q

What method did Wundt come up with for studying the human mind?

A

Introspection

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5
Q

How do you do introspection?

A

Participants presented with stimulus

Ask participants to describe their thought process

Results compared

Theories generated

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6
Q

What did introspection form the basis of?

A

The cognitive approach

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7
Q

Introspection evaluation

A

Nisbett and Wilson (1977) claim that we have little knowledge of the causes and processes underlying our behaviour and attitudes. This challenges the value of reflective reports in exploring human behaviour.

Still useful - Hunter used introspection to measure happiness in teens. They had to write down their thoughts and feelings at random points through the day when a beeper went off. Found that teens tend to be happy and are more upbeat when doing a challenging task

It isn’t accurate - It is a form of self report technique and therefore affected by demand characteristics

Uses as scientific method. It uses systematic methods, standardised instructions and controlled stimuli

Too subjective - it focuses on non-observable concepts and Wundts results were not replicated by other researchers. It requires inference so other researchers may infer something else

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8
Q

What do behaviourists believe we are born as?

A

Blank slates (tabula rasa)

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9
Q

Is the behaviourist approach scientific

A

Yes - it is based off of direct observations in a laboratory

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10
Q

How do behaviourists believe we get info of the world?

A

Everything is learnt

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11
Q

What similarities do humans and animals have according to behaviourists?

A

We learn in the same ways

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12
Q

What is conditioning?

A

A term used for learning

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13
Q

What are they 2 types of conditioning?

A

Classical and Operant

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14
Q

What are the stages of pavlov’s classical conditioning

A

Neutral stimulus —> No response
Unconditioned stimulus —> Unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus + Neutral stimulus —> Unconditioned response
Conditioned Stimulus —> Conditioned response

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15
Q

What are some features important to classical conditioning?

A

Timing - unconditioned and neutral must be at the same time

Extinction - Learnt behaviour lost if not repeated

Spontaneous recovery - Behaviour can be learnt again if UCS and NS are repaired

Stimulus generalisation - Learnt behaviours can be generalised to other things e.g. rats/rabbits in the little albert study

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16
Q

Who proposed operant conditioning?

A

Skinner

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17
Q

What does operant conditioning refer to?

A

Learning from the consequences of your behaviour

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18
Q

What is positive reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Something added that increases behaviour
Punishment - Something added that decreases behaviour

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19
Q

What is negative reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Something taken away that increases behaviour
Punishment - Something taken away that decreases behaviour

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20
Q

What are the 2 schedules of reinforcement?

A

Continuous
Intermittent

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21
Q

What’s continuous reinforcement?

A

Behaviour is continuously rewarded every time - behaviour is learnt quickly but won’t last

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22
Q

What is intermittent reinforcement?

A

Behaviour is rewarded occasionally - Longer to learn bust lasts longer

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23
Q

What was the Skinner box?

A

Skinner created a special cage called a ‘Skinner box’ to test operant conditioning in rats (and sometimes pigeons). The rat moves around the cage and when it accidentally presses the lever (or pecks a disc in the case of a pigeon), a food pellet falls into the cage. The hungry rat very quickly learns that it can get food by pressing the lever.

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24
Q

Behaviourist approach evaluation

A

Makes use of an empirical method - rejected introspection and instead focussed on measurable and objective behaviour. This makes research more valid which leads to more funding

Use of animal studies - behaviourists believe animals learn in the same ways as humans - gives researchers more control over demand charactersitics - can be considererd unethical and lack generalisability to humans e.g. skinners rats doesnt tell us mutch about humans

Very deterministic - we have no free will. It ignores biology and is therefore reductionist. Maybe better to use a more holistic approach

Conditioning useful in exmplaining and treating phobias e.g. systematic desensitisation for people with phobias. The patient is conditioned to association their phobia with relaxation instead of fear. C.A. cant explain why people cant always recall traumatic experience

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25
How does SLT propose we learn?
Through the observations of others We observe then imitate
26
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Watching others behaviour be rewarded or punished?
27
What makes imitation more likely?
Observed the consequences of that behaviour Identify with the role model Confidence to reproduce the behaviour
28
What are the 2 types of role models? What do they mean?
Symbolic - Someone portrayed in the media Live - Someone who we have direct contact with
29
What are the 4 meditational processes
Attention - pay attention to actions and consequences Retention - Observed behaviour stored in LTM Reproduction - Must be able to reproduce the behaviour Motivation - The individual must expect to be rewarded
30
Bandura
66 nursery kids 3 conditions 1) Video where adult rewarded for hitting doll 2) Adult punished for hitting doll 3) Nothing happened hitting the doll 1. was most aggressive 2. was least aggressive When 2. were offered a reward to be aggressive, they quickly were
31
Bandura evaluation
High internal validity - lab study so extraneous variables controlled Only looked at immediate effects, we don't know if this would last Heard in video - that’s the bobo doll for hitting
32
Siegel and McCormick
Young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to associate with similarly- inclined peers because they are more fun to be with, and thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process and not necessarily the result of SLT itself.
33
Social learning theory evaluation | Approaches
Issue of causality - do people learn behaviour from role models or do they seek out role models who exhibit bhevaiour they already favour? - **Siegel and McCormick** If individuals are predisposed to certain behaviours, suggests behaviours arent learned through social interactions but pre existing inlclinations Cook & Mineka (1990) had monkeys watch a video of another monkey reacting with fear to a snake. When the observer-monkeys had a chance to get food, they would not if it involved approaching a snake or a snake-like object (toy snakes). **C.A - may be evolutionary** Research is scientific, being carried out in lab conditions and using **one-way mirrors and multiple observers for inter-rater reliability**. C.A - brings in cognitions – thought processes, which are unobservable. Ignores biological factors e.g. the role of testosterone in aggression. The aggressive boys in Banduras study may have had high levels of testosterone explaining their violence
34
What is the cognitive approach
Studying internal processes
35
How do psychologists study the cognitive approach?
Scientifically using controlled experiments
36
What is an inference and why do cognitive psychologists have to make them?
Working out what is happening using available info Mental processes can't be directly observed Therefore **inferences made**
37
What do cognitive psychologists do with their inferences?
Make models and theories to explain mental processes
38
What are schemas?
Packages of knowledge developed through experience They help organise info
39
Why are schemas good and bad
Good as they allow us to quickly access large amounts of info and make predictions based off of life experiences Bad as they can lead to stereotypes and discrimination which has a negative impact on mental health
40
What are the 2 model types cognitive psychologists use?
Theoretical models Computer models
41
What is a theoretical model?
Used by researchers to explain **unobserved** processes They describe how info is processed - often with pictures E.g. the multi store memory model
42
What is a computer model?
The mind is like a computer Info is take in via the senses, processed by the brain and then we perform an output
43
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the influence of the brain structures relating to mental processes Is built on computer models
44
What are brain scans like fMRI and PET used for (cognitive neuroscience)
They allow scientists to observe and describe which areas of the brain are involved in mental processes
45
What is cognitive neuroscience used for?
Treatment of memory issues Helps people with dyslexia Lie detection
46
Cognitive approach evaluation
Leads to treatments e.g. CBT for depression and police interview techniques Criticised for machine reductionism - they reduce complex behaviours down to simple mechanical processes The approach tells us how cognitive processes take place but not why - **emotion is also ignored which is a major driving force behind many decisions** Neuroimaging technology e.g. Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), have lent weight to theoretical models by providing empirical confirmation of brain activity for specific cognitive functions under controlled conditions. Some claim that these techniques provide the cognitive approach with a strong scientific grounding, while others insist that neuroimaging evidence is only correlational, and therefore does not constitute true scientific validation of either theories or models
47
What is the biological approach?
Combines psychology with biology to provide **Physiological** explanations for human behaviour
48
What is physiology
The study of the human body, its parts and how they function
49
What are 2 key assumptions of the biological approach
Everything psychological was first biological The mind lives in the brain
50
What are 3 structures we look at in the biological approach?
Genes Neurotransmitters Hormones
51
What are some biological measures the biological approach uses
Hr BP brain activity
52
What do biological psychologists believe about behaviour? (genetically)
Genes influence behaviour such as intelligence and personality in the same way they influence physical things like eye colour
53
How can we investigate the effect of genes?
Twin studies Family studies Adoption studies Selective breeding
54
What does monozygotic mean
Twins from the same egg - same genes
55
What does dizygotic mean
Twins from different eggs - same genetic differences as with normal siblings
56
How do twin studies help us know if genetics are important?
Comparing concordance rates
57
What is a concordance rate? What does it mean in twin studies?
The rate of agreement between 2 things The extent to which twins share similar traits / characteristics
58
What would a 100% concordance rate between mz twins mean?
100% genetic basis due to same genetic make up
59
Why do DZ twins have lower concordance rates?
They only share 50% of genes so different characteristics
60
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
Genotype - a persons genetic make up. The genetic code written in DNA Phenotype - A persons physical characteristics - the way the genes are expressed (genotype + environment)
61
What is neurochemistry?
The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system
62
What is the difference between neurotransmitters and hormones?
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry signals between neuron's. They affect how we feel Hormones are chemicals that are produced by endocrine glands that alter cell activity
63
What is evolution
Successful traits that are passed from 1 generation to the next
64
What is natural selection?
Traits which are adaptive to an environment will be passed down
65
Why do biological scientists believe humans have certain behaviours?
They are adaptive (aid survival)
66
What is sexual selection
The traits which are more desirable to the opposite gender will be passed down
67
Biological approach evaluation
Scientific credibility - very objective measures in lab conditions so cause and effect is measured **C.A. - causation is often implied in brain structures**. e.g. schizophrenia suggests that a lack of activity in the ventral striatum is linked to the development of negative symptoms such as avolition. This is a problem for biological explanations because: research tells us only that there is an **association between brain structures and behaviour; it cannot tell us that the reduced activity in that area of the brain causes the behaviour, or that the behaviour causes lower activity in that part of the brain**. often based on correlational results Very reductionist - behaviours are reduced to very small components e.g. hormones. Take **interactionist approach** Real world treatments e.g. for neurochemical imbalances such as in depression, SSRI'S can help change this. Entirely nature in the nature nurture debate but doesn't take into account that twins are often raised in the same environment and so findings could be all nurture
68
Who proposed the psychodynamic approach
Freud
69
What is a key assumption of the psychodynamic approach | Origin of mental conditions
Mental illness is of psychological origin
70
What part of the mind is important in psychodynamic theory
The unconscious
71
What part of life affects mental illness (psychodynamic theory)
Childhood
72
Structure of personality (psychodynamic) | How they work in conjunction together
Id Ego Super ego **These are all in conflict with each other** This caused anxiety so we use defence mechanisms to avoid this anxiety This leads to mental illness
73
What are the defence mechanisms
Denial Displacement Repression
74
What is the Id
Present at birth Pleasure orientated Immediate gratification Selfish Unconscious
75
What is the ego
Present by 1 Reality Sorts the demands of the ID and Super ego Conscious
76
What is the super ego
By 5 Moral Concerned with right and wrong Develops once you learn moral standards Conscious
77
In a healthy person, what does the psychodynamic approach say is in control
The ego
78
What happens if the Id or Super ego is in control
Id - psychotic - mentally unstable Super ego - Neurotic - anxious / fearful
79
How does the ego protect itself
Defence mechanisms
80
What is repression?
Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts. Even if your not aware, it can still influence behaviour
81
What is denial?
Refusing to accept reality in order to resist painful feelings
82
What is Displacement?
Diverting emotions onto someone else as they can't direct them onto the person who deserved them
83
What causes mental illness according to Freud
Being stuck on a psychosexual stage- conflicts or anxieties from childhood cause future problems
84
What are Freuds psychosexual stages
Oral (0-2) - mouth Anal (2-3) - Anus Phallic (3-6) - Genitals Latent (6-12 - Sexual urges channelled into sports/hobbies Genital (12+) - Sexual feelings
85
What is the oral stage
0-2 Pleasure: Mouth, sucking, biting swallowing Conflict: weaning away from mothers breast
86
What is the anal stage
2-3 Pleasure: Anus Conflict: potty training
87
What is the phallic stage
3-6 Pleasure: Genitals Conflict: oedipus / electra conflict
88
What is the latent stage
6-12 Pleasure: Sexual urges channeled into sports / hobbies Conflict: A period of calm
89
What is the genital stage
12+ Pleasure / conflict: Sexual changes reawaken repressed needs. Sexual feelings towards others leads to sexual gratification
90
What was the case of little Hans
Little Hans (5) had a fear of horses after witnessing one collapse Freud believed that this fear was a result of castration anxiety and that the horse represented his father Freud believed Hans transferred his unconscious desires onto the horse, fearing punishment (castration) from his father for his desires towards his mother
91
Psychodynamic approach evaluation
Freud offers therapy of psychoanalysis where unconscious thoughts are identified and helped (Maat meta-analysis found that psychoanalysis significantly improved symptoms and the effects lasted years) Unfalsifiable as the unconscious mind can never be accessed and therefore tested Case studies (Little Hans) so can't be generalised. Studies are also subjective so other researchers may have drawn different conclusions - **also ethnocentric as all of fruds patients were Viennese and middle class** Fisher's meta-analysis of 2500 studies found evidence supporting unconscious motivation and the 3 defense mechanisms
92
Who developed the humanistic approach?
Maslow and Rogers
93
What does the humanistic approach focus on
Free will
94
What is the humanistic approach based on
A person-centred approach (conscious human experience)
95
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Self actualisation Esteem Love Safety Physiological
96
What did Rogers claim we need to self actualise
Positive regard from other people Feelings of self worth
97
How do feelings of self worth develop
It develops in childhood as a result of interactions with family and friends
98
What is our ideal self
How we want to be An idealised image we develop over time based on what we have learned over time
99
What is out actual self?
Who we actually are
100
What is congruence?
The similarity between actual and ideal image The more similar - the higher our self worth is
101
What does Rogers say about incongruence with regards to self actualisation?
If you are incongruent, you cannot achieve self actualisation - we experience negative feelings
102
What is counselling psychology?
Also known as person-centred therapy People can only achieve their potential for growth if they have positive self-regard For this to happen, they need unconditional positive regard from others
103
What did Rogers believe that adult issues are caused by
Feelings of worthlessness that originated in childhood from conditional positive regard e.g. If a parent says I will only love you if ...
104
What does a therapist need to be according to Rogers
Genuine, Empathetic and provide unconditional feelings of self-worth
105
Humanistic approach evaluation
Suggests that all problems are a result of not achieving self actualisation however this is unrealistic as very few people achieve self actualisation. **Furethemore needs are dynamic** and continuously influenced by the interplay between our inner drives and the external world **Freund** Maslow’s early work suggested that **one must fulfill lower levels in order to reach ultimate self-actualization**, we now know human needs are not always clearly linear nor hierarchical. **People might experience and pursue multiple needs simultaneously** or in a different order than the hierarchy suggests Real-world application - client-centred therapy has helped many people overcome their incongruence Maslow's hierarchy is culturally biased - collectivist cultures such as Japan strive towards group goals so don't focus on individual development - only applicable to individualist cultures Harter - found that teens who felt they had to meet certain conditions to gain parental approval frequently ended up not liking themselves (supports rogers incongruence)
106
What is the unconscious for
* the unconscious protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict. * defence mechanisms, eg repression, denial, displacement, are used unconsciously to reduce anxiety * the underlying unconscious drive is sexual
107
What do defence mechanisms do
* Provide compromise solutions (usually unconscious) to deal with unresolvable conflict * Provide a strategy to reduce anxiety (which weakens the ego’s influence)
108
When discussing genotype vs phenotype of identical twins, how can differences be explained?
Same genotype Different phenotype They behave differently (environmental factors)
109
How can an animals behaviour be changed by reinforcement
P.R: feed it when it does a good thing N.R: spray with water/play sound until it does good thing Schedule of reinforcement: continuous and intermittent
110
Features of slt
Meditational processes Observational learning Vicarious reinforcement Role models Imitation

Psychology (14 decks)

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