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Psychology > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

1
Q

What is sex?

A

The biological status of someone, either male of female. Determined by chromosomes or anatomy

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2
Q

What is gender

A

A persons psychosexual status as either masculine or feminine. Influenced by society and culture

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3
Q

The batista boys

A

They had four daughters who at puberty changed into boys. Their vaginas closed over, they developed testicles and grew normal sized penises. All were able to adjust to their new roles as boys with ease

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4
Q

What is a sex role stereotype?

A

A shared set of beliefs and expectations about what is acceptable male and female behaviour

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5
Q

What is androgyny?

A

A personality trait where a person has a balance of masculine and feminine traits

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6
Q

How is androgyny measured?

A

On Bem’s sex role inventory

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7
Q

What is Bem’s sex role inventory?

A

20 masculine traits
20 feminine traits
20 neutral
you must rate yourself 1-7 on each
(1 = never true of me)
(7 = always true of me)

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8
Q

What are the 2 scales on Bem’s sex role inventory

A

Masculine - Feminine
Androgynous - undifferentiated

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9
Q

Bem

A

50 males - 50 females
Rate 200 traits on desirability for men/women
Highest scores in each category became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits
Led to Bem’s sex role inventory
1 month later, 28 M and 28 F retested
Test-retest of +0.9

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10
Q

Androgyny evaluation

A

Bem’s research had good reliability (test retest) and therefore could be used to encourage children to be androgynous

The questionnaire may have been answered untruthfully - the data is ordinal and therefore subjective

T.L - Ben said androgyny will lead to greater psychological wellbeing but this idea has been challenged. Adam’s suggested that those who display more masculine traits are better adjusted to western society

Opposed by gender neutrality which suggests there are no masculine and feminine traits invalidating the BSRI

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11
Q

What are the biological approaches to explaining sex and gender?

A

Hormones

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12
Q

What does the biological approach say about sex and gender?

A

They are basically the same thing

Sex is the biological assignment of the individual

Gender is the behavioural differences between males and females based on that biology

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13
Q

How do hormones affect gender?

A

Once a foetus is either male or female, boys will form testes and thereby testosterone but a female won’t. This leads to sex characteristics which leads to gender

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14
Q

What does testosterone do?

A

Higher concentration in males

Causes increased body hair, broader physique and more muscle development

Can cause aggression

Contributes to being biologically male but may also produce gendered behaviour

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15
Q

What does oestrogen do?

A

Higher concentration in women

Regulates the menstrual cycle, causes breast development, wide hips and a high voice

Linked to pre-menstrual syndrome which refers to fluctuation in mood - Some people believe it leads to increased emotion (this is criticised)

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16
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A

Higher concentrations in women

Very high levels are birth to allow bonding - also stimulates lactation

Contributes to the stereotypes that women are more capable of intimacy than men - this is challenged as men and women release equal quantities during sex

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17
Q

Hines

A

Studied female babies from women given male hormones injections during pregnancy to reduce chance of miscarriage

Children found to be more aggressive - likely due to testosterone

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18
Q

Young

A

Changed sexual behaviour of M&F rats by giving them hormones in early development
Female rats tried to mate as male rats would
It was suggested that higher levels of testosterone affected brain development

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19
Q

David Reimer

A

After a botched circumcision, Bruce was left without a penis.

Bruce was raised in a stereotypically female way

Hated his life

Was told he was a male and went back to living as one

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20
Q

Biological approach to sex and gender evaluation

A

Helps us to explain atypical sex development e.g. Kleinfelters

Opposed by SLT which directly contradicts the biological approach - children learn by watching and imitating role models. This is better as it explains cultural differences

Some of this theory states that hormones lead to stereotypical behaviours - Feminists say that premenstrual syndrome (a stereotypical female behaviour) is jut a social construct designed to dismiss female emotion

Very reductionist - may need to take a more holistic view including culture, biology and psychology

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21
Q

Kinefelters key facts

A

Only affects men
Affects 1-500 to 1-1000
Sufferers are XXY

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22
Q

What are 3 physical characteristics of kinefelters

A

Breasts
Reduced hair development
Underdeveloped genitals

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23
Q

What are 3 psychological characteristics of klinefelters

A

Poor reading
Poor problem solving
Shy

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24
Q

Turners syndrome key facts

A

Only affects women
Affects 1-5000
Suffered are XO (45 chromosomes instead of 46)

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25
Q

What are 3 physical characteristics of Turners syndrome

A

Webbed necks
Sterile
No breasts

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26
Q

What are 3 psychological characteristics of Turners syndrome

A

Higher than average reading ability
Poor maths skills
Difficulty fitting in

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27
Q

Atypical sex chromosomes patterns evaluation

A

Application of understanding and diagnosing The syndromes earlier. Those who were treated from a young age are much better (Australia 87 men)

Measures the difference between typical and atypical people but there may be no such this as a typical male or female

Can be confounded by environment as children may treat theses kids differently e.g. kids have physical abnormalities so kids make fun of them hence they are shy

Helped us understand nature-nurture debate - compare atypical and typical people

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28
Q

What are the psychological theories of gender development

A

Kohlbergs - cognitive
Gender schema theory - cognitive
Psychodynamic
SLT

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29
Q

What did Kohlberg argue about gender development

A

It runs parallel to intellectual development. Changes take place gradually through these stages
Took inspiration from Piaget who suggested intellectual development moved in stages

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30
Q

What is the gender identity stage

A

Around 2
They know what gender they are but do not know that’s its permanent

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31
Q

What is the gender stability stage

A

Around 4
They know gender is permanent but may be confused by people who have a characteristic of the opposite gender

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32
Q

What is the gender constancy stage?

A

Around 6
Gender is constant and they will no longer be confused by it

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33
Q

What does kohlberg say kids will do once they reach gender constancy?

A

They will seek out gender appropriate role models to learn more of their behaviour. They will imitate theses role model behaviours and look for those who confirm their views on gender

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34
Q

Slaby and Frey

A

Showed kids split screen images of a M&F doing the same task and measured how long kids spent looking at each one
Young kids spent equal amounts of time looking at each
Older kids spent more time looking at the same gender

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35
Q

Kohlberg’s theory evaluation

A

Using children in research means kids can’t express themselves as they are as young as 2 or 3

Munroe et al provided cross cultural support for this theory - found evidence of kohlbergs stages in other countries e.g. nepal

Criticised for reductionism - Cognitive factors are the only important factor ignoring all biology

Means we can identify when not everything is as it should be and then help these people

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36
Q

What does gender schema theory argue about gender?

A

Gender development rests with our schema development. As our schemas get more complex, so foes our understanding of gender

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37
Q

What is a schema?

A

A mental representation which contains all of our information on a particular topic

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38
Q

How do kohlbergs theory and gender schema theory agree

A

Agrees with gender identity at 2 where they can label themselves as boy or girl

39
Q

How do kohlbergs theory and gender schema theory differ

A

After gender identity gender schema says that they then begin looking form information to confirm their views

(contradicting kohlberg who says this happens after all 3 stages)

40
Q

What does gender schema theory argue about children

A

They are active seekers of info

41
Q

How do gender schemas start off?

A

They are stereotypical but become sophisticated over time

42
Q

What group do children pay attention to (gender schema theory)

A

An in group of kids made up of the same gender

43
Q

At what age will kids pay attention to an out group?

A

At 8

44
Q

Martin and Halverson

A

Kids younger than 6 could remember photos more accurately where gender consistent behaviour was displayed e.g. women cleaning
When the behaviour wasn’t consistent, the gender was later changed in recall

45
Q

Gender schema theory evaluation

A

R.S Martin and Halverson - supports idea of gender schemas but also an in group and out group

Real world use - kids should be encouraged to explore all aspects of gender development to improve schema

Opposed by biology - David Reimer shows us biology is important as he was raised as a girl but felt like a boy

Nomothetic - therefore making it reductionist

46
Q

At what point did Freud theorise that gender development took place

A

The phallic stage

47
Q

At what age are kids in the phallic stage

A

3-6

48
Q

What is the main source of anxiety for kids in the phallic stage

A

Castration

49
Q

What is the oedipus complex

A

Boys become incestuous towards mother
They hate father for standing in their way
However father is more powerful
Boy is fearful of being castrated
Boy gives up love for mother

50
Q

What is the electra complex

A

All girls experience penis envy
Girl is in competition with mother for fathers love
Girl blames their mother for lack of penis
Girls believe their mother castrated them
Over time girls accept they don’t have a penis

51
Q

How may a child move through the phallic stage?

A

They must identify with their same sex parent

52
Q

What is identification (Freud)

A

Trying to be associated with the same sex parent by imitating them

53
Q

How does internalisation occur (freud)

A

Once the child identifies with their same sex parent, they will internalise that parent as an example of their gender

54
Q

Psychodynamic theory of gender development evaluation

A

Application - child must have same sex role model - children in same sex or single parent homes need help - socially sensitive

Only Little hans R.S so not generalisable

Provides a comprehensive explanation of male gender development but the original theory provides very little insight into females

other theories such as the cognitive approaches use the scientific method and are more falsifiable so may be better

55
Q

How does SLT argue gender development comes about

A

Through reinforcement - either direct of vicarious

56
Q

What is direct reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Receiving a pleasant outcome because of your behaviour

Punishment - Receiving an unpleasant consequence because of your own behaviour

57
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Observing a role model receive a pleasant consequence for their behaviour

Punishment - Observing a role model receive an unpleasant consequence for their behaviour

58
Q

What is the way in which children are encouraged to show gender appropriate behaviour called (SLT)

A

Differential reinforcement

59
Q

What are the 2 types of role model

A

Live
Symbolic

60
Q

What is Identification (SLT)

A

How similar you consider yourself to the role model

61
Q

What are the 4 meditational processes

A

Attention
retention
Reproduction
Motivation

62
Q

Smith and Lloyd

A

4-6 month old babies put in unisex snow suits
Kids give names in line with gender or not
Women were videotaped playing with the babies.
If the baby had a boys name, they were given boys toys and visa versa for girls

63
Q

SLT evaluation for gender evaluation

A

Nurture so ignores all biology (reductionist)

Hetherington - found that children show no preference for same sex parents behaviour but instead imitate the behaviour of the parent they spend more time with

Opposed by cognitive theories which suggest we actively seek information rather than just passively observe

Sears - found that parents allowed their sons to be more aggressive in their relationships with other children and towards their parents than girls. Parents believed they responded in the same ways

64
Q

What study supports cultural differences in gender roles

A

Mead

65
Q

Mead

A

Arapesh - All raised to be loving and gentle
Mundugumoor - All raised to be war like, arrogant and fierce
Tchambuli - F dominant in the economy, M sentimental and emotional (lots of preening and gossiping)

Emphasises nurture over nature

66
Q

What studies support cultural similarities on gender roles

A

Buss
Munroe and Munroe

67
Q

Buss

A

37 countries where females sought males who could provide wealth and males sought females for beauty

68
Q

Munroe and Munroe

A

Across most cultures, men were bread winners and women were home makers

69
Q

Culture and gender development evaluation

A

Meads conclusions were biased towards western ideals as she had preconceptions about what she would find

Imposed etic - It is encouraged to have one member of the research team to be of the culture being studied

Very deterministic - whatever culture you are brought up in will shape your gender

can’t isolate nature from nurture so biology will play some role

70
Q

When are children more likely to imitate tv role models

A

When they are the same gender

71
Q

Bussey and Bandura

A

Media says:
Men are ambitious, independent and advice givers
Women are unambitious, dependant and advice seekers

72
Q

Furnham and Farragher

A

Men are more likely to be shown in professional roles
Females are more likely to show domestic roles within family

73
Q

What did McGhee and Freugh suggest

A

Children who are exposed to more popular forms of media are more likely to show gender stereotypical roles

74
Q

Williams

A

Natural study in Canada
Observed the effect of introduction of television into a town (nicknamed Note) and compared this to a town which already had television (access to several channels) and a town which had television but only one channel.
They conducted surveys to gather information about the beliefs and values of the town before
TV was introduced and compared this to after.
She reassessed each town two years after the introduction of TV.
She found that before TV the children in Notel and the one channel only town showed less gender stereotyped beliefs and behaviours. After the introduction of TV gender stereotypes displayed by children increased and matched that of the town which already had TV.

75
Q

Effect of media on gender development evaluation

A

Puts forward SLT as a mechanism which is a well supported and established theory

Could be used to improve the media - e.g. showing women doing non gender traditional roles

Very deterministic - kids will internalise what they see in the media

Correlational research - creates an issue when we consider if the media causes behaviour or reflects it

76
Q

What is an example of atypical gender development

A

Gender dysphoria

77
Q

What is gender dysphoria

A

A mismatch between biological sex and gender

78
Q

What are the biological explanations of gender dysphoria

A

Androgen theory
Brain-sex
Genetics

79
Q

How does androgen theory explain gender dysphoria

A

Exposure to testosterone in womb may affect gender development
Over exposure may make female babies more masculine
Under exposer may make male babies more feminine

80
Q

Hare

A

M-F trans people more likely than non transgender people to have a articular version of an androgen receptor gene. —> Reduced action of testosterone —> More feminised brain

81
Q

How does brain-sex theory explain gender dysphoria

A

It is caused by brain structures that are incompatible with the persons biological sex
Some structures are dimorphic meaning different in each sex

82
Q

Zhou

A

Studied the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis which fully develops at 5 and 40% larger in men.
IN post mortem studies of 6 M-F trans people, BNST was of a similar size to a female brain

83
Q

Krujiver

A

6 M-F trains peple
Measured the number of neurones in a particular brain region. Went to female version

84
Q

How does genetics explain gender dysphoria

A

People may inherit a vulnerability to the disorder

85
Q

Heylens

A

23 MZ twins, 21 DZ twins
One of each pair had GID
39% MZ concordant - 0% DZ

86
Q

Biological explanations for gender dysphoria evaluation

A

Could be seen as mother blaming (mother producing too much hormone)

Lots of extraneous variables affect androgen theory such as environmental factors

Genetics allow for potential screening

Plasticity undermines brain sex (BNST)

87
Q

What are the social explanations of gender dysphoria

A

Cognitive
Psychoanalytical

88
Q

What is the cognitive explanation of gender dysphoria

Who proposed it?

A

Based off of gender schema theory
Dual path way theory

Liben & Bigler

89
Q

What is dual path way theory

A

Path 1 (normal)
Child passes through gender stages and develop schemas
The childs identity and schema match so no dysphoria

Path 2 (personal)
Child passes through gender stages but personal interests dominate their gender identity
Child may show androgen our behaviour and be flexible with gender identity

90
Q

Cognitive explanations of gender dysphoria evaluation

A

Explain how but not why ( no explanation for why some kids schemas are different)

Opposed by biology

Socially sensitive (kids should only do gender stereotypical things)

Gender schema is well supported so it is reasonable to make inferences on the causes of gender dysphoria

91
Q

How do psychoanalytical theories explain gender dysphoria

A

Gender dysphoria is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established
During their separation, the child fantasises about a symbolic fusion with mother to reduce anxiety
The child becomes the mother and takes on a female gender identity

92
Q

Stoller

A

In interviews with males with gender dysphoria, they all had overly close relationships with mother

93
Q

Psychoanalytical explanations for gender dysphoria evaluation

A

Alpha bias - provides insight into males but not females

Opposed by biology

Stollers research was highly subjective - unfalsifiable so any number of extraneous variables may have played a role

Zucker - examined 115 boy with gender concerns. Of the boys who were identified with a gender disorder, 64% were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder

Psychology (14 decks)

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