Approaches

Question 1

Who headed the emergence of psychology as a science?

Answer 1

Wilheim Wundt

Question 2

How did Wundt contribute to the emergence of psychology?

Answer 2

He set up the first ever lab dedicated to psychological investigations in Leipzig in 1879. He also published one of the first books on psychology

Question 3

How did Wundt help set apart psychology from philosophy?

Answer 3

He focused on studying the mind in a more structured and scientific way

Question 4

What method did Wundt use to uncover his participants were thinking/experiencing?

Answer 4

Introspection

Question 5

What is introspection?

Answer 5

A psychological method which involves analysing your own thoughts and feelings internally

Question 6

What conditions were all introspections recorded under?

Answer 6

Strictly controlled which allowed procedures to be replicated every time

Question 7

Positive evaluation for introspection?

Answer 7

Wundt’s methods have often been seen as the start of cognitive psychology
This is a strength because it shows his methods are incredibly influential to cognitive psychologists

Question 8

Negative evaluation for introspection?

Answer 8

Research was not scientific - criticised by behaviourists due to self reported experiences not being observable and therefore difficult to measure, undermines the objectivity

Lack of reliability - when replicated participants wouldn’t have identical thoughts in each introspection, no consistency in Wundt’s methods

Question 9

What is the basis of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 9

1. We are born a blank slate, all of our behaviour is learned and determined by interactions and experiences in our environment
2. The behaviourist approach rejects the vagueness of introspection. Only observable behaviour is measurable and so should be the only behaviours studied
3. Behaviourists suggest that the basic learning processes is the same for all species, it is valid to study animals and apply the same principles of learning to humans (classical/operant conditioning)

Question 10

What were Pavlov’s findings about classical conditioning?

Answer 10

Classical conditioning is learning by association.

UCS —> UCR
UCS + NS —> UCR
CS —> CR

Timing - Pavlov found the association only occurs if the UCS and NS are presented at the same time or around the same time. If there is too big a gap no association will be made

Stimulus generalisation - P discovered once an animal is conditioned they would also respond to other similar stimulus to the original conditioned stimulus.

Extinction - if the condition is repeated without having any reward, the response slowly disappears

Question 11

What were skinners findings on operant conditioning?

Answer 11

Positive reinforcement- if a reward is given for doing something, the behaviour is likely to be repeated

Punishment - If punishment occurs after behaviour then this reduces the chance that the behaviour will be repeated

Negative reinforcement- If something unpleasant stops when we perform a desired behaviour, the behaviour is more likely to be repeated

Shaping - This is a route to target behaviour, instead of only reinforcing the target behaviour, behaviours which lead to the target behaviour are rewarded.

Question 12

Positive evaluation of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 12

Evidence - Lots of supporting evidence (Pavlov and Skinner), this is a strength as it adds validity and credibility

Application - real-world application (token economy and systematic desensitisation), this is a strength because the applications have been very successful

Methods - much of the supporting research comes from highly controlled scientific animal lab experiments (Pavlov and skinner), this is a strength because by using the scientific method behaviourism has been very influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline

Question 13

Negative evaluation of behaviourism?

Answer 13

Deterministic - can be accused of being deterministic in its view of human behaviour, this is a weakness as it suggests people are not responsible for their behaviour

Reductionist - can be accused of being reductionist in its view of human behaviour, this is a weakness as it is a simplistic view of behaviour to think we only learn through positive/negative reinforcement

Question 14

Basis of social learning theory (SLT)?

Answer 14

1. Bandura agreed with behaviourists that our behaviour is learned from experience, however he suggests we learn from seeing reinforcement/punishment in other people
2. SLT believes that learning occurs directly through classical/operant conditioning but also indirectly (vicarious conditioning)
3. SLTeorists believe in using scientific lab-based experiments to study behaviour objectively

Question 15

What does modelling refer to in SLT?

Answer 15

People are more likely to observe and imitate certain people more than others, these are known as role models
Live model - parent/teacher/member of a peer group
Symbolic model - somebody portrayed in media e.g actor

Question 16

What does identification refer to in SLT?

Answer 16

The extent to which an individual relates to a model and wants to be like them, it is more likely to happen if (s)he are similar e.g same sex.

Question 17

What does imitation refer to in SLT?

Answer 17

Copying attitudes and behaviours that are modelled by people around us

Question 18

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 18

Reinforcement that isn’t directly experienced but that occurs through someone else being reinforced
A person who observes a model being rewarded for a behaviour is likely to repeat this behaviour in the hopes of receiving the same award.

Question 19

What is the role of mediational processes in SLT?

Answer 19

Attention - in order to learn behaviour we must first notice the model in their environment and pay attention to them and what they’re doing

Retention - the individual must remember what they observed

Motor reproduction - the observer must know they can replicate the behaviour

Motivation - the individual must have a reason to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed.

Question 20

Negative evaluation of SLT?

Answer 20

Reductionist - can be accused of having a reductionist view on human behaviour, this is a weakness because it is a simplistic view of behaviour

Question 21

Positive evaluation of SLT?

Answer 21

Deterministic - SLT is described as less deterministic than the behaviourist approach (suggests people can choose to imitate actions), this is a strength as the theory says our behaviour is not entirely controlled. SLT takes into consideration that humans have a certain amount of free will

Evidence - Many pieces of supporting evidence (bobo), this is a strength as it adds validity and credibility

Application - principles of SLT used to increase understanding of why humans behave pro/anti-socially. (SLT can be used to explain how children develop aggressive or gender stereotypical behaviour), this is a strength as it can be useful to parents so they can attempt to ensure their children aren’t exposed to negative behaviours

Methods - supporting evidence comes from lab studies (bandura), this is a strength as lab studies are highly controlled which makes it easier to establish cause and effect

Question 22

Basis of the biological approach?

Answer 22

1. An understanding of the brain structure and brain function can explain our thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
2. Biopsychologists agree that genes influence behaviour. Many believe physchological characteristics have evolutionary explanations

Question 23

What are genotypes and phenotypes?

Answer 23

Genotype - An individuals genetic makeup

Phenotype - a product of the genotype interacting with the environment

Question 24

Beliefs on the influence of biological structures on behaviour?

Answer 24

Neurons - Basic building blocks of the nervous system (receive, process and transmit information to other cells in the body.

Central nervous system - the brain and the spinal chord

The peripheral nervous system - This is made up of neurons that transmit messages or info to and from the central nervous system (somantic and autonomic ns)

Somantic ns - transmits info received by the senses to the central nervous system and sends messages to muscles

Autonomic ns - split into the sympathetic ns (increases bodily activities) and the parasympathetic ns (maintains or decreases bodily activities)

Question 25

Influence on neurochemistry on behaviour?

Answer 25

Neurotransmitters - chemical messengers in the brain. Transmission of chemicals is via cerebral fluid When a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is released. It travels from one neuron to the next across a junction called a synapse Hormones - hormones are biochemical substances that are produced by glands in the endocrine system e.g pituitary/adrenal glands

Question 26

Assumptions of the cognitive approach?

Answer 26

1. Unlike behaviourists, cognitive psychologists believe it is important to look at internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour. Cognitive psychologists investigate cognitive processes such as memory, perception, thinking attention and language. 2. These mental processes aren’t observable, so cognitive psychologists must study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds. They do this by devising models and then testing/measuring them scientifically. 3. According to cognitive psychologists our mind works like a computer in terms of: input from our senses which it then processes and produces an output such as language or behaviour.

Question 27

Theoretical models for the cognitive approach?

Answer 27

Cognitive psychologists use both theoretical and computer models to help them understand internal mental processes. In reality there are overlaps between these two models, but theoretical models are abstract whereas computer models are concrete. A theoretical model should be taken as a representation rather than an exact copy Cognitive psychologists encourage theoretical models due to the components being able to be tested individually and examined in detail that way. If the data doesn’t fit with the model it can be adjusted.

Question 28

Examples of theoretical models?

Answer 28

The information processing approach. This suggests that info flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages (input, transformation and output) Multistore model

Question 29

Example of computer models?

Answer 29

Computer models compare the mind to a computer by suggesting the way info is processed is similar. These models use the idea of the brain being hardware and the mental processes are the software. They use concepts of stores to hold the info and concept of coding to turn info into a useable format. The usefulness of the comparison is debatable as humans have feelings and emotions unlike computers, but many cognitive psychologists believe that despite the differences it is useful for the cognitive psychologist to use this analogy in their work.

Question 30

The role of schemas?

Answer 30

Schemas are packages of info, beliefs and expectations in the mind developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming info recurved by the cognitive system: for example if you witness a crime scene your schema will help you interpret what you have observed and heard. Schemas gained through experience help you to respond to the object/situation appropriately. As we get older schemas get more detailed and sophisticated However, schemas may cause errors in our processing of the sensory info that we receive. If we experience a situation or object to ay we don’t have a schema for we might ignore info or misinterpret it.

Question 31

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 31

Cognitive neuroscience (CN) is the scientific study of the brain structures, mechanisms and processes that are responsible for cognitive thinking. This involves mapping of brain areas to specific cognitive functions. As early as the 1860s Paul Broca identified how an area of the frontal lobe is linked to speech production. PET scans and fMRI scans now help psychologists to understand how areas of the brain are linked to different cognitive activities and emotions. CNs also study atypical brains (people with brain damage). This is done to test if people with a Brain injury to a specific part of the brain have any sort of cognitive dysfunction. If there is some sort of issue it shows a link between that part of the brain and that function.

Question 32

Uses of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 32

The use of scanning and imaging techniques to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain, leading to treatment for memory problems The use of scanning/imaging techniques to study mental processing patients with depression or OCD in children with autism or dyslexia Use of computer sims/computational modelling to test theories or hypothesis about mental processes such as attention, memory, problem solving etc

Question 33

Positive evaluation of the cognitive approach?

Answer 33

Determinism - Less deterministic than other approaches and adopts a soft determinism view, rather than being controlled by environment or genes we can make rational choices, this is a strength because soft determinism is a middle ground position different to hard determinism of behaviourism and biological approach. Evidence - plenty of supporting evidence, Johnson and Scott (1987) eyewitness testimony, this is a strength because it increases validity and credibility. Application - real world application, led to cognitive treatments such as CBT, this is a strength because cognitive based therapies have led to successful treatment of people with depression. Methods - Emphasis on scientific methods, use of lab experiments in highly controlled settings, more credible scientific basis since wundts early attempts to measure mental processes with introspection, this is a strength because it means studies have a credible scientific basis.

Question 34

Negative evaluation of cognitive approach?

Answer 34

Reductionist - can be accused of being reductionist of human behaviour, reduces all complex behaviour down to one cause - faulty thinking and distorted schemas of the world, this is a simplistic view of behaviour which ignores environmental factors or how neurotransmitters may effect behaviour.

Question 35

Case study Johnson and Scott (1987) Eyewitness testimony

Answer 35

Used two conditions - one with a weapon and one without. In both conditions participants heard a discussion in an adjoining room. In condition one a man emerged holding a pen with grease on his hands. In condition two the man emerged with a paper knife covered in blood. When asked to identify the man from 50 photos, participants in condition 1 were 49% accurate, compared to only 33% in condition 2 This suggests the violent weapon distracted them and explains why eyewitness testimony sometimes has poor recall for violent crimes.