Approaches

Question 1

Outline the role of Wundt in the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 1

• Opened lab in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s
• Philosophy –> controlled psychology
• Aim: describe nature of human consciousness in controlled, scientific environment
• Introspection
• Standardised procedures
• E.g. ticking metronome, pps record thoughts, images and sensations
• Structualism

Question 2

Define introspection

Answer 2

a systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience of a stimulus

Question 3

What is structuralism

Answer 3

Isolating the structure of consciousness

Question 4

Strength of Wundt’s work

Answer 4

Scientific
* Introspection in controlled lab
* Standardised procedures
* Controlled EVs
* Foundation for later approaches

Question 5

Limitation of Wundt’s work

Answer 5

Subjective
* Relied on pps reporting private mental processes
* Subjective as pps may have hidden thoughts (social desireability bias)
* Difficult to establish ‘laws of behaviour’ (1 aim of science)
* Didn’t meet criteria for scientific enquiry

Question 6

Timeline of pscyhology (emergency of psychology as a science)

Answer 6

• 1900s behaviourists rejected introspection
• 1930s behaviourist scientific approach dominated
• 1950s cognitive approach syidoed mental processes succesfully
• 1980s bological approach introduced technological advancements

Question 7

Strength of emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 7

Modern psychological research is scientific
* Psychology aims = natural science aims (describe, understand, predict and control behaviour)
* Learning, cognitive and biological approaches use scientific method
* E.g. lab = controlled, unbiased

Question 8

Limitation of emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 8

Some approaches use subjective data
* Humanistic approach doesn’t formulate laws of behaviour
* Psychodynamic approach uses case studies with unreprestantive samples
* Pps in studies can respond to demand characteristics
* Scientific approach not always possible

Question 9

Key features of the behaviourist approach

Answer 9

1. Key principle: studying behaviour that can be observed and measured in a controlled setting maintaining objectivity
2. Classical Conditioning
3. Example: Pavlov’s dogs
4. Operant conditioning
5. Example: Skinner’s research
6. Three types of reinforcement

Question 10

Behaviourist approach- classical conditioning with example

Answer 10

Learning by association
Pavlov’s research
1. UCS (food) –> salivation
NS (bell) –> no response
2. NS + UCS (bell and food occur at same time during conditioning)
3. CS (bell) –> CR (salivation) after conditioning

Question 11

Behaviourist approach- operant conditioning with example

Answer 11

Learning is an active process where humans and animals operate on environment
Behaviour mained by consequence

Skinner’s research
1. Rat in a Skinner box where it activated a lever and was rewarded a pellet
2. Desireable consequence led to behaviour being repeated (positive reinforcement)
3. If when lever pressed, it avoided an electric shock, behaviour would be repeated (negative reinforcement)

Question 12

Behaviourist approach- three types of consequence of behaviour

Answer 12

• Positive reinforcement- recieving reward when behaviour is performed
• Negative reinforcement- avoiding something unpleasant when behaviour is performed
• Punishment- unpleasant consequence of behaviour

Positive + negative reinforcement increase liklihood of behaviour, punishment decreases it

Question 13

Strengths of behaviourist approach

Answer 13

Well-controlled research
* Controlled lab setting
* Broken behaviour into stimulus-response units
* Studied causal relationships
* Scientific credibility
* Counterpoint
* Oversimplifies learning ignoring biological and cognitive aspect
* Learning more complex than what’s observed

Real-world application
* Principles of conditioning applied to real-world behaviour and problems
* Token economy system rewards appropriate behaviour with tokens that are exchanged for privileges (operant conditioning)
* Used in prisons and psychiatric wards

Question 14

Limitations of behaviourism

Answer 14

Environmentally deterministic
* All behaviour determined by past conditioning
* Ignores free will
* Skinner- free will is illusion. Past conditioning determines outcome even if we think we made the desicion
* Ignores conscious desicion making

Environmentally reductionist
* Breaks behaviour into stimulus-response units
* Assumes humans are passive
* Ignores other aspects of human nature eg cognition

Ethical issues
* Skinner box allowed control but caused harsh, cramped conditions
* Deliberately underweight so always hungry
* Benefit vs cost

Generaliseability
* Are animal studies applicable to humans

Question 15

Key features of the social learning theory

Answer 15

1.Learning occurs due to imitation
2. Vicarious Reinforcement increases liklihood of behaviour
3. Mediational process cause learning
4. Identification influence learning

Supported by Bandura’s bobo doll research

Question 16

Social learning theory- imitation

Answer 16

Assumption: immitation of observed behaviour causes learning to take place indirectly
Learning occurs through experience

Question 17

Social learning theory (vicarious reinforcement)

Answer 17

• People observe behaviour and it consequence
• Vicarious reinforcement- behaviour that is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) is more likely to be copied

Question 18

Social Learning Theory- Mediational (cognitive) process

Answer 18

1. Attention- whether behaviour is noticed
2. Retention- whether behavioud is remembered
3. Motor repoduction- being able to do it
4. Motivation- the will to perform the behaviour

1+2= learning behaviour
3+4= performing behaviour
So learning + performance don’t have to occur together (unlike in behaviourism)

Question 19

Social learning theory- Identification

Answer 19

• People are more likely to imitate the behaviour of someone they identify with
• These role models are similar to the observer, attractive and have a higher status

Question 20

Bandura et al. (1961)

Answer 20

Adult hit bobo doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it.
Behaviour of child observed
Children who saw aggression were more aggressive towards doll

Question 21

Bandura et al (1963)

Answer 21

Children saw adult hitting bobo doll which was either
1. Rewarded
2. Punished
3. No consequence

Children who saw aggression rewarded were more aggressive (vicarious reinforcement)

Question 22

Strengths of the SLT

Answer 22

Cognitive factors
* CC and OC don’t include cognitive factors so cannot explain behaviour on its own
* Humans + animals store info about behaviour of others and use it to make judgements about when actions are appropriate
* SLT more complete explanation –> recognises mediational processes
* Counterpoin:t
* Observational learning is controlled by motor neurons in the brain –> allows for empathy + imitation
* SLT doesn’t reference biological factors

Real-world application
* Shows how children learn from those around them + media
* Explains how cultural norms are transmitted
* Useful in behaviour explanation e,g, understanding gener roles by imitating models in media

Reciprocal determinism
* Reciprocal determinism- influenced by environment but exert influence upon it through our chosen behaviour
* Suggests free will in the way we behave
* More realistic and more flexible than behaviourist –> recognises role in shaping environment

Question 23

Limation of SLT

Answer 23

Low external validity
* Bandura’s idea from observations of children in labs
* Issue of demand characteristics
* Purpose of bobo doll is to hit so children may have behaved as intended
* Little info gained about aggression

Question 24

Key concepts of cognitive approach

Answer 24

1. Cognitive mental processes should be studied through inferences
2. Schemas shape experiences
3. Theoretical and computer models help understand mental processes
4. Emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Question 25

Cognitive approach- study of internal processes

Answer 25

* Mental processes should be studied indirectly through inferences as cannot be observed directly * draw conclusions about how internal mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour in scientific experiments

Question 26

Cognitive approach- role of schema

Answer 26

* mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing * Developed from experiences. * shape experience of world. * More detailed with age * enable us to identify new information by identifying how they fit with the new information * Eg negative self schema lead to depression

Question 27

Cognitive approach- theoretical and computer models

Answer 27

* Theoretical models help to understand internal mental processes * E.g. MSM suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages: input, storage, retrieval * Computer models refer to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind * eg Chatbots deal with customer enquiries

Question 28

Cognitive approach- emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 28

* Scientific study of influences of brain structures on mental processes * Uses brain scans * Eg memory research linked episodic and semantic memory to prefrontal cortex * Eg overactive occipital frontal cortex in OCD

Question 29

Strengths of cognitive approach

Answer 29

**Scientific + objective** * Used controlled + rigorous study e.g. in labs to infer cognitive processes * Biology + cognitive psychology merge to cognitive neuroscience enhancing scientifiic credibility * **Counterpoint** * Low ecological validity due to artificial materials eg word lists * The use of inference means cognitive psychology can become theoretical * Do not represent real life experiences **High application** * Applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts: * CBT --> depression/OCD * Cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT * Basis of developments in AI as AI learns how humans think and behave * Has real world value **Soft determinism** * Recognises cognitive system has limits but we are free to make decisions before responding to stimuli (soft determinism) * shaped by our upbringing but our cognitive processes can change our schemas eg choose to think more positively * Contrasts passive belief of behaviourism * Flexible, middle-ground focused on free will

Question 30

Limations of cognitive approach

Answer 30

**Machine reductionism** * Machines have a greater memory storage capacity than humans * Humans are affected by the environment such as emotions * Eg the role of anxiety in the accuracy of recall in EWT * Ignores the influence of emotion and motivation on our ability to process information * Reductionist, weakens the validity

Question 31

Key concepts of the biological approach

Answer 31

1. Assumptions: must look at biological structures and processes as everything is physiological 2. Neurochemical basis 3. Genetic basis of behaviour 4. Genotype vs phenotype 5. Theory of evolution

Question 32

The biological approach- Neurochemistry

Answer 32

* Neurochemistry- action of neurotransmitters in brain * Imbalance causes mental disorders * E.g. a lack of serotonin --> OCD

Question 33

The biological approach- Genetic basis of behaviour

Answer 33

* Inherit psychological characteristic e.g. intelligence * Concordance rate in twins shared characteristics are studied * Higher concordance in MZ than DZ --> genetic basis

Question 34

The biological approach- genotype vs phenotype

Answer 34

* Genotype= actual genetic make-up * Pheontype= expression of genes through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics * Phenotype influenced by genes + environment * PKU is a genetic disorder prevented by diet restriction

Question 35

The biological approach- theory of evolution

Answer 35

* Darwin (1859) theory of natural selection * Genetically determined behaviour improving survival and reproduction is passed through genes to next generation * These are adaptive genes * Eg attachment behaviour in newborns

Question 36

Strengths of biological approach

Answer 36

**Real-world application** * Neurotransmitter understandings allows for drugs to treat mh conditions * SSRIs for depression increasing serotonin at synapse * People with depression can manage condition + live normally instead of in hospital * ***Counterpoint*** * Antidepressants don't work for everone * Comparison of 21 different drugs --> varied effectiveness * Brain chemistry not sole cause **Scientific method** * Uses precise + objective methods * E.g. fMRI which are not open to bias + hard to fake * Objective, reliable data * ***Counterpoint*** * Only show association not causation in scans * Eg orbitofrontal cortex and OCD, unclear which came first * Correlation =/= proof

Question 37

Limitations of the biological approach

Answer 37

**Determinist** * Human behaviour --> internal, genetic causes (no control) * But genotype expression is influenced bu environment * Not even MZ twins look exactly the same * Too simplistic, ignores mediating effects of environment * No free will, people lose hope **Biologically reductionist** * Assumes behaviour is caused by single genes + neurotransmitters * Ignores external factors **Darwin critique** * Popper- not possible to show evolution happening (it is unfalsifiable) * But fossil record suggests natural selection eg dino --> bird * Unclear if theory is scientific

Question 38

Key points of the humanistic approach

Answer 38

1. Concept of free will 2. Maslow's hierarchy of needs 3. Focus on self + congruence 4. Role of conditions of worth 5. Influence on counselling psychology

Question 39

Humanistic approach- free will

Answer 39

* Humans are affected by external and internal influences but are self-determining * Psychology should focus on subjective experience not general laws (person-centred)

Question 40

Humanistic approach- Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Answer 40

From base to top: 1. Physiological 2. Safety 3. Love 4. Esteem 5. Self-actualisation Each need must be met before progressing Self-actualisation- the innate tendency to achieve one's full potential

Question 41

Humanistic approach- focus on self and congruence

Answer 41

You need to be in a state of congruence (alignment) between your self-concept and ideal-self in order to self-actualise

Question 42

Humanistic approach- conditions of worth

Answer 42

* Conditions of worth- Placing limits or boundaries on what makes somebody worthy of love * E.g. conditional love by parent --> low self-esteem + incongruence between ideal self + self concept * Role of therapist to provide unconditional positive regard

Question 43

Humanistic approach- influence on counselling

Answer 43

* Client centred therapy (counselling) * Therapist provides: genuineness, empathy, unconditional positive regard * Aim: increase self-worth + reduce incongruence

Question 44

Humanistic approach- strengths

Answer 44

**Holistic** * Focuses on the whole person and their subjective experience including past, present future etc (e.g., person-centred counselling). * More comprehensive and higher validity **Positive approach** * Humanism → Person-Centred Therapy = non-directive, client-led, empowering * People in control of life → freedom to change * Optimistic **Free will** * Complete free will * Operate as angents with complete control over behavi

Question 45

Humanism- Limitations

Answer 45

**Lacks scientific credibility** * Key concepts (e.g., self-actualisation, congruence) are difficult to measure objectively * Rogers’ Q-Sort tool aimed to measure therapy progress, but it’s subjective and biased * Science requires concepts to be objectively defined and precisely measured * Lack of supporting scientific evidence **Cultural bias** * Based on individualistic values (freedom, autonomy, personal growth) * Less relevant to collectivist cultures (e.g., China) that value group goals over self * Reflects western culture --> not all human behaviour * Low generaliseability

Question 46

Key points of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 46

1. Role of the unconscious 2. Structure of personality 3. Defense mechanisms 4. Psychosexual stages

Question 47

Psychodynamic approach- role of the unconscious

Answer 47

Mind is made of: 1. Conscious- what we are away of 2. Preconscious- thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and 'slips of the tongue' 3. Unconscious- Biological drives and instincts. Repressed thoughts, memories and feelings

Question 48

Psychodynamic approach- the structure of personality

Answer 48

Tripartite structure of personality is made up of three parts: 1. Id- Pleasure principle, demands instant gratification, instincts from birth including biological drives 2. Ego- Reality principle, mediator between Id and superego using defence mechanisms. Appears at 2 3. Superego- morality principle, internalised sense of right vs wrong which punishes ego through guilt. Appears at 5

Question 49

Psychodynamic approach- Defense mechanisms

Answer 49

1. Repression- forcing a distressing memory out of conscious mind 2. Denial- refusing to acknowledge reality 3. Displacement- Transferring feelings from true source onto a substitute target

Question 50

Psychodynamic approach- psychosexual stages

Answer 50

**1. Oral stage** * 0-1 yrs * Pleasure focus= mouth, mothers breast * Conflict= Weaning away from mother’s breast * Consequence= Oral receptive: passive, needy, will overeat, bite nails, smoke. Oral aggressive: hostile, verbally aggressive **2. Anal Stage** * 1-3 yrs * Pleasure focus- withholding/excreting faeces * Conflict- Toilet training * Consequence- Anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive. Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy. **3. Phallic Stage** * 3-5 yrs * Pleasure focus= genitals * Conflict- Oedipus/electra complex - resolved through the development of the superego * Consequence- Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless. **4. Latency** * 6- puberty * Sexual urges are latent (dormant). * Energy is directed into sports, hobbies and same-sex friendships. **5. Genital** * Puberty onwards * Pleasure- Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty * Conflict- Following social rules/being in a heterosexual relationship. * Consequence- Difficulty forming hetrosexual relationships. Sexual behaviour fixated at the oral, anal, or phallic stage.

Question 51

Psychodynamic approach- phallic stage conflict

Answer 51

* Boys develop incestuous feeling towards mother + murderous hatred towards father * Later, feeling for mother are repressed + boys identify with father * Girls experience penis envy

Question 52

Strengths of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 52

**Introduced psychotherapy** * Psychoanalysis- first psychological treatment vs physical * Treat neurosis, everyday problems * Provides access to uncoscious * Set foundation for talking therapies * **Counterpoint** * Harmful for serious mental disorders eg schizophrenia * May not apply when client has lost touch from reality **Explatory power** * Huge influence on contemporary thought * Explain range of behaviours (moral + mental disorders) * Drew attention to influence of childhood on adult personality * Impacted art + literature- surrealist movement focus on dreams + dream analysis * Positive influence on modern-day

Question 53

Limitations of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 53

**Psychic determinism** * Cannot control unconscious which it says influences behaviour * No free will creates excuses and allows people to lose hope of recovering * Too extreme as no concept of free will beyond childhood * Crtique- people have control over behaviour **Untestable concepts** * Cannot be falsified → pseudo-science (Popper) * Cannot be empirically tested e.g. unconscious Id, oedipus complex are all unconscious * Supporting evidence still unscientific: Case study: Hans’ phobia of horses → penis envy → subjective conclusion