What is introspection?
The process by which a person gains knowledge of self, through self examination of emotions
What is the scientific method?
Objective, systematic and replicable investigation methods of testing/ modifying hypothesis based on these methods
What is structuralism?
Behaviours broken down into their simplest form
What are the limitations of Wundt’s theory?
Weren’t reliable reproduced by other researchers
Non observable responds
Introspection not entirely accurate
Nisbett and Wilson claimed that we have very little knowledge of the causes of our behaviour and attitude
Participants who were unaware of factors influencing them which showed implicit attitudes exist outside of conscious awareness
What are the strengths of the scientific method?
Knowledge acquired using the scientific method is more than passive acceptance of facts
Rely and belief in determination in order to establish cause and effect
Self-corrective
What are the limitations of the scientific approach?
Create contrived situations which tell us little about how people act in more natural environments. Giving low ecological validity
Much of the subject matter in psychology is unobservable
What is empiricism?
Belief that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and is not innate
What is the fundamental belief of the behaviourist approach
All behaviour is learnt through either classical or operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning
FaceTime reflex responses that occurred involuntarily which become associated with other stimuli
Who investigated classical conditioning
Pavlov
What was Pavlov able to do
Get dogs to solvate the sound of a bell as it had been associated with food
What was the unconditioned stimuli us in Pavlov’s research
Food
What was the neutral stimulus in Pavlov’s research
Sound of bell
What was the unconditioned response in Pavlov’s research
Salivating
What are the features that Pavlov found important
Timing
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalisation
Explain timing as an important feature
If the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS, think conditioning does not take place
Discuss extinction as an important factor
The CR does not become permanently established eventually the effect of the disappears
Discussed spontaneous recovery as an important factor
Once put together again the link is easily remade
Discussed stimulus generalisation as an important factor
Once an animal has been conditioned they respond to other stimuli that is similar to the CS
What is a strength of classical conditioning
Lead to the development of treatments for the reduction of anxiety associated with phobias
Systematic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical conditioning as it eliminates learned anxious response therapist try to eliminate one learned response and replace it with another that the patient is no longer anxious.
The approach has been found to be effective for a range of phobias
What is the limitation of classical conditioning
Different species face different challenges to survive this means relationships between the CS and UCS tend to be more difficult to establish for some species.
Animals are prepared to learn associations but I’ll significant for survival yet I’m prepared to learn associations that are not in this respect making some associations harder than others
Who investigated operant conditioning
Skinner
What does Skinner theory show
Repeating of the behaviour could be shaped by either rewarding a punishing the behaviour Arrat learnt to press the lever that produces food very quickly
What is reinforcement
Anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that it will occur again
What is positive reinforcement
Occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying (you give something)
What is negative reinforcement
Removing an adverse stimuli
When is a continuous schedule used
For establishing the first response
When is the partial reinforcement schedule used
For maintaining the response
What is the effect of punishment on learning
Decreases the likelihood of an event happening again Positive punishment is giving something directly e.g. hitting
Negative punishment is taking something away e.g. removing a gold star from a child
What is a strength of operant conditioning
Skin is reliance on the experimental method with controlled conditions enables a possible causal relationship.
He was able to accurately measure the effects on the rats behaviour allowing the cause-and-effect relationship between the consequence of the behaviour of the future frequency of its occurrence
What is a limitation of operant conditioning
Study of nonhuman animals rather than humans can tell us a little about human behaviour. Human beings have free will rather having their behaviour determined however skinners believes the behaviours of free will is an illusion and actually the product of external influence that guide our behaviour
What is the fundamental belief of social learning theory
We learn through classical and opera and conditioning but also allows the cognitive processes e.g. observation and imitation of others
Who investigated social learning theory
Bandara
Discuss the procedure of Bandura’s research
Children observed either oh crescive or non-aggressive model to see if they would imitate them.
Half exposed to aggressive who is physically and verbally aggressive to life-size Bobo doll what saying pow.
Children then put in a room alone with other toys and the Bobo doll
What did Bandura find
Children who observed the aggressive model reproduce lots of their behaviour.
Children who observe the non-aggressor exhibited virtually no aggression.
One third who observed aggressor repeated the models verbal responses. Children in the non-aggressor didn’t.
Follow-up study found children who saw a reward for the bad acts were more likely to imitate it
Discuss the useful application that Aker explains of Bandura’s research
Akers suggest the probability of criminal behaviour increases when the models commit criminal behaviours because they develop an expectation of positive consequences on their own behaviour
Discuss support for identification in SLT
Fox and bailing son found using the computers virtual human engaging and exercise if the model was similar to the observer observer engage in more exercise in the next 24 hours where as others only loitered
What are the mediational processes and social learning theory
Attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation
Why does behaviour occur according to social learning theory
Learning through observation and imitation of others which can take place either directly or indirectly. Imitation because of behaviour is seen to be rewarded and is more likely to occur when we identified that the role model
What of general strengths of SLT
Works cross culturally
Less deterministic as it allows the free will
What is a problem with the causality of SLT
It may not be the role model causing the behaviour but having an attitude prior to contact. Siegel & McCormick suggest young people who are deviant seek those similar to them as they are more fun
What is a problem in the complexity of SLT
Disregards other potential influences on behaviour. The child is exposed to many different influences and many complexity ways. This includes genetic predisposition, media portrayals, and locus of control.
What is the fundamental belief of the cognitive approach
All behaviour is a result of information received through the senses being processed by systems in the brain, often using computer metaphors for explanations
What is the role of schemas in internal mental processes
The framework of the brain that helps organise and interpret information allowing us to make shortcuts to mass info. Excludes things that don’t conform to establish ideas are building gaps what info is missing often leading to stereotypes
What is the role of theoretical models in the study of internal mental processes
Multi store/working memory model or simplified representation is based on research. Off and pick Torio with arrows indicating cause and affect. Often incomplete informal and frequently changed
Discuss the role of computer models in the cognitive approach
Looks at the way sensory information is encoded as it passes through the system which still needs to computer analogy. What is inputted to the senses determines what output is
What is involved in the study of cognitive neuroscience
Study of brain structures involved in mental process
What techniques are used to study how different parts of the brain become active?
Mental imaging techniques eg: PET scans and MRI scans
Discuss the strength of application in the cognitive approach
Can be applied to social psychology explaining why impressions are formed as schemas set expectations
Explain how the scientific method is a strength in cognitive psychology
Experimental method reaches conclusions about mind from accurate evidence rather than introspection.
Allows establishment of cause and effect
Discuss the limitation of computer models
Encoding, storage and retrieval are taken direct,y from field but a big difference between humans and computers is computers don’t make mistakes, Ray don’t ignore information or forget whereas humans do
Discuss the issue that the cognitive approach ignores emotion and motivation
Ignores emotion and motivational processes, due to over dependence on information processing
Discuss the lack of ecological validity in the cognitive approach
Tasks used in cognitive psychology have little in common with everyday activities
What is e fundamental belief of the biological approach
All behaviour can be explained in terms of the individuals biology
What is meant by heredity and what is the involvement of genes
Genes may carry instructions for characteristics but their development depends on how that gene interacts with other genes and environmental influences
What is the nature nurture debate
Is behaviour due to a biological predisposition or environmental factors teaching behaviour
What is meant by genotype
Genetic code on DNA
What is meant by phenotype
Physical appearances resulting in genotype
Discuss the role of the cerebrum in the brain
Largest part of brain
Cerebral cortex- outer surface responsible for higher order functions eg: language
What is the role of neurotransmitters
Excitatory neurotransmitters trigger impulses and stimulate the brain eg: dopamine is associated with drive and motivation
Discuss the role of hormones on behaviour
Stimulates receptions in cells that changes the cell activity eg: testosterone found to surge in ice hockey players during home games
Discuss the strength of the scientific method in the biological approach
Experimental method which is ghost controlled
Allows establishment of cause and effect
Allows replicability
Discuss the real world application of the biological approach
Provides clear predictions such as the effect of neurotransmitters and the behaviour of people genetically related
Applied to real world as it allows drug therapies to be created
Discuss the issue of the biological approach ending too reductionist
Too simplified to say behaviour is the result of small components
Ignores other factors such as cognitive, emotional and cultural
Discuss the issue of the evolutionary explanation as a limitation if the biological approach
Critics that established patterns of human behaviour are more impacted your cultural origins with no survival or reproductive value
Give an example of how the evolutionary explanation criticises the biological approach
Incest taboos which most cultures have strict moral codes against are culturally determined.
evolutionary emphasises the problem of genetic mutations which would come from incest and natural selection would favour those who weren’t
What is the fundamental belief of the psychodynamic approach
That all behaviour is motivated by unconscious material in the mind
Discuss the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach
Everyday actions are product of unconscious who is revealed in Freudian slips
Mind actively prevents traumatic experiences entering conscious mind through defence mechanisms
When are defence mechanisms triggered
When an individual can’t deal with situation rationally.
Give an example of a defence mechanism
Repression, where the unconscious blocks thoughts from entering consciousness in times of anxiety to stop it hurting us such as during early times of bereavement
What are the this’s structures to the personality
ID
Ego
Superego
Discuss the ID
Innate, containing basic instincts eg: libido
Discuss the ego
Mediates e demands of the ID and superego
Discuss the superego
Conscience and morality
Discuss Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
Every child goes through 5 stages from age 0-10
If child has trauma at certain stage they become fixated at hat stage
Fault behaviour reflects characteristics of that stage
Eg: oral stage trauma could have adult behaviour having issues with the mouth ie: eating disorder
Discuss the strength: psychoanalysis a pioneering approach
Represents huge shift in psychological thinking
New methodological procedures to gathering empirical evidence
Highlights potential of psychological treatments rather than biological leading to successful treatments: Maat found significant improvements in symptoms that were maintained in years after psychoanalysis
Discuss scientific support for the psychoanalytic approach
Claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and confirmed using scientific methodology
Fisher and Greenberg found support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour as well as defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement
Discuss the limitation that psychoanalysis is a gender-biased approach
Women’s sexuality were considered less developed
Horney, criticised Freudian theory on his views of women and their development as it dismissed women which is problematic as he treated many female patients and his theories are still being used today
Discuss how psychoanalysis is a culture-biased approach
Sue and Sue: little relevance for those from non western cultures
Many cultural groups eg: China avoid thoughts that cause distress when a person is depressed. This differs to the talk about it approach psychoanalysis offers
What is the fundamental principle of the humanistic approach
People have free will to choose path in life within the constraints imposed by other factors eg: biological and social
What does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs consider
Processes of growth and fulfilment to self actualisation
Focus on we,f, a positive regard and feeling of self-worth
When does Congruence occur?
When revere is a match between our perceived self and ideal self
Discuss conditions of self worth
Conditional love, acceptance causes conditions of worth including having to fulfil certain things they want you to do ie: educational expectations
What is the position taken by a humanistic counsellor
Provide unconditional positive regard to express acceptance and understanding
What is the aim of a humanist counsellor
To dissolve clients conditions of worth and the client to move towards being more authentic and true to self ie: able to behave in a way that is true to the person they are
