Approaches In Psychology Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
what are the origins of psychology?
A
rene descartes- dualism=
the suggestion that the mind and body are separate from each other.
john locke- empiricism=
the suggestion that all knowledge comes from experience. this influenced the development of the behavourist approach
charles Darwin- evolution=
the suggestion that all human and animal behaviour changes over successive generations. influenced the development of the behavourist approach
2
Q
what were wundt’s key contributions?
A
-known as the ‘father of psychology’ who moved psychology from psychological roots to controlled research
-set up the first psychology laboratory in Germany, which was designated to the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditons
-made the first attempt to analyse the nature of human consciousness and systematically study the mind under such controlled conditions. Developed the method of introspection.
3
Q
what is introspection?
A
- a systematic analysis/ study of the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images, sensations
-individuald would exam and report on their own mental processes when presented with stimuli or a task (standardised sensory events)
-individuals would then report their resctiond snd these would be analysed using the tridimensional scale of feelings
-isolating the structure of consciousness is known as structuralism
4
Q
what is structuralism
A
investigating thoughts, images and sensations seperately
5
Q
How do wundt’s contributions have practical applications?
A
- causes the introduction of scientific principles in research
-all introspection were recorded under strict, controlled conditions ensuring they were conducted in the same environment with the same stimulus (standardised procedure)
-experimental method helped pave the way for psychology to emerge as a science alongside the development of other approaches
6
Q
How is introspection questioned by the fact that introspection relies on non-observable responses?
A
-participants are unable to comment on unconscious factors relating to their behaviour and are purely reporting on their thoughts, emotions etc
-cant be scientifically measured or physically observed
-makes it extremely difficult to establish general laws for human behaviour as we are purely relying on non-observable responses to draw conclusions from
7
Q
How is introspection questioned by the fact thhat it relies/ produces subjective data
A
-is purely based on ones’ personal experiences and perspectives meaning that it heavily produce subjective data
-makes it extremely difficult to establish general rules or laws about human behaviour as each sequence of introspection can be extremely unique
8
Q
what are the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
A
-suggests that all behaviour is learnt through environments and experuences
-our environmnt provides us with stimuli to which we respond to
-through experience we learn to reposnd to stimuli in particular ways
-behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
-early behavourists rejected the idea of introspection suggesting that it was too vague and difficult to measure
-they tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab studies in order to achieve this
9
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
learning through association
10
Q
what is the process of classical conditioning?
A
1) before conditioning
-unconditioned stimulus —-> unconditioned response
2) during conditioning
unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus —-> unconditioned response
3) after conditioning
conditioned stimulus —> conditioned response
11
Q
what is one trial learning (classical conditioning)?
A
sometimes an animal/human can acquire a new behaviour in a single pairing of the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. this tends to happen when the response is severe ad failing to learn could be fatatl
12
Q
what is extinction and spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)?
A
-if the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented in the abscence of the unconditioned stimulus the strenght of the conditioned resposne gradually declines and eventually becomes extinct
-if the pairing ever occurs again then the response reappears
13
Q
what is generalisation (classical conditioning)?
A
-the stimuli is similar to the controlled stimulus and can also trigger the controlled response
14
Q
What happened in the key study of Pavlov?
A
Pavlov investigated classical conditioning in action with dogs: could dogs be conditioned to heavily salivate at the sound of a bell if repeatedly preseted at the same time as they were gives food.
Dogs were individually situated in a laboratory based environment secured within harnesses. A food bowl was positioned before them and a device was employed into their gums to gather saliva produced.
Before the experiment: dogs would salivate in response to the food, but not to a bell when it was rung
During the experiment: the bell was rung whenever food was presented
After many trails: the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone. an association was formed
15
Q
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the pavlov study?
A
strength:
-can easily be replicated, it is a lab experiment so a standardised procedure was used, can check for consistency of results
-high internal validity, the IV was dlly controlled by pavlov, can be sure that the DV was completely affecting the IV
weaknesses:
-lacks generalisability, was just animals (dogs) used in the study, cannot be sure if other animals/ mammals (humans) act the same way
–external validity is low, artificial environmet used due to it being a lab experiment, cannot apply to real life as it wasnt a real situation/ environment
-protection from harm, dogs harmed during processes as he was drilled into the mouth, has not fulfilled his duty of care as a psychologist
16
Q
What happened in the little albert study by watson and Rayner?
A
-wanted to see whether humans could form phobbias through classical conditioning
-participant was 11 month old Albert whose mother was a nurse at the hospital where they worked
-albert was given a white rat to play with, initially wasnt scared of it
-a metal bar was hit whenever he reached out for the rat to make a loud noise and scare him
-was repeated several times
-albert eventually started crying and screaming when he saw the rat
-response was generalised to other stimuli such as white rabbits, white furred coat, a dog etc
17
Q
what is operant conditioning?
A
our behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
learning through consequences (positive or negative)
18
Q
how does learning via operant conditioning work?
A
skinner suggested that we can experience reinforcement which increases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT:
-we receive a reward for our behaviour, therefore we are more likely to repeat it
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT:
-our behaviour helps us avoid something unpleasant, therefore we are more likely to repeat it.
PUNISHMENT:
-we receive an unpleasant consequence of our behaviour, therefore we are less likely to repeat it.
19
Q
What is behaviour shaping (operant conditioning)?
A
complex behaviours can be conditioned by reinforcing behaviours which closely resemble the desires response.
20
Q
what is schedules of reinforcement (operant conditioning)?
A
a continuous reinforcement schedule (reinforcing the behaviour everytime it occurs) is most effectibe in establishing a particular response
21
Q
What was the key study of skinner?
A
-wanted to investigate operant conditioning in action with animals- Could animals (rat or pigeon) learn through the consequences of their actions in three different ways: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment
- a rat/ pigeon would be places in a ‘skinner box’ which is a small controlled box with several connecting features. there is a lever which could deliver a food pellet if pressed or pecked. This lever could also be connected to an eletrified grip which if pressed would result in an electric shock or pressign the lever to stop a constant electric shock.
22
Q
where is positive reinforcement seen in skinners study
A
pressing the lever and receiving food
23
Q
where is negative reinforcement seen in skinners study
A
pressing the lever to stop the constant electric shock
24
Q
where is punishment seen in skinners study
A
pressing the lever and receiving a shock
25
what are strengths and weaknesses of skinners study?
strengths:
-can easily be replicated, lab study so standardised procedure use, can check for consistency of results by repliction easily
weaknesses:
- lacks generalisability, only rats/ pigeons used (animals), unsure if other species will behave the same way in this situation
-low ecological validity, artificial environment and task, can not link findings to real life situations as the study was artificial
-has ethical issues, lacks protection from harm, rats are being harmed (electric) not fulfilling his duty of care as a psychologist
26
How can the behaviourist approach be praised for its practical applications?
-theories of classical and operant conditioning have been used to help and explain everyday issues
-economy systems used in prisons and schools have been formed using the principles of operant conditioning
-explanations and treatmens for phobias such as systematic desensitisation and flooding have formed using the principles of classical conditioning
-demonstrates the contributions of the approach to wider society and its positive econimic implications as it helps phobia sufferes return to work and creates job opportunities for those in the clinica field
27
How are concepts within the behaviourist approach supported by research?
- pavlov found that dogs could be conditioned to heavily salivate at the sound of a bell through classical conditioning.
-did this by introducing the bell sound as a neutral stimulus and pairing it with the unconditioned stimulus of the dog food to create the unconditioned response of wanting food and eventually the conditioned stimulus + response.
-study provides evidence to suggest that dogs can be classical conditoned to behave a certain way
-increases validity
28
how can the behaviourist approach be praised for its scientific credibility
- makes use of rigorous and controlled experimental research with emphasis on objectivity and control over extraneous variables
-findings and concepts proposed followinf these experiments are likely to both be reliable and valid
-lends validity to the behaviourist approach and the suggestions made by behavioural osychologist
29
How does the behaviourist approach have a limited view regarding the origins of behaviour
-emphasises the role of learning in behaviour suggesting that our environment (nurture( provides us with stimuli that we respond to and this can be criticised for ignoring the role of biological al influences such as the role of genes in human behaviour (nature)
-behaviourist approach could be argued to be an incomplete explanation of human behaviour in which other influences such as our biology should be considered
30
what are the main assumptions of the social learning theory?
-suggests that behaviour is learnt through environments and experiences
-key assumption is that learning takes place through observation and imitation
-often known as a 'bridge' between the behaviouridt approach and the cognitive approach
-suugests that our internal processes have a role in whether we imitate a behaviour or not
31
what is imitation?
copying the behaviour of others
32
what is vicarious reinforcement?
-imitation is more likely to occur if we are observing a behaviour which results in a reward
-a form of indirect learning
33
what is identification?
when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them
34
what is modelling?
the action of imitating behavior from a role model
35
what are mediational processes?
-the cognitive/ internal processes that inflluence learning
**attention**-must pay attention to their behaviour
**retention**-must be able to retain the behaviour in our memory
**reproduction**-must have the skills and ability to reproduce the behaviour
**motivation**-must be motivated and want to reproduce the behaviour e.g. knowing we will gain pleasure/ a reward for copying it could motivate
36
what was the key study of bandura?
-wanted to investigate whether children woukd imitate the behaviour of an adut they observed
children split into 3 conditions:
A: observed an aggresive rolde model hitting and shouting at a bobo doll
B: observed a non-aggresive model being civil and talking to a bobo doll
C: observed no model (control group)
3 parts of the study:
1-observation
-observing aggresive role model, shown footage of an adult model interacting aggresively with a life-size bobo doll (kicking, shouting)
or
-observing non-agressive role model, shown footage of an adult model interacting with a life-size bobo doll in a friendly/ civil manner.
or
-control, watched nothing
2-aggression arousal
-after observation, researcher took the child to a room filled with attractive toys, told they were for other children to play with
3-imitation
-then moved into the next room where the chikd was left to interct with toys and a bobo doll.
-researcher observed the behaviour and recorded any imitations the child made of the role models behaviour they previously saw
-researchers made sure that behaviour from the aggresive role model was very specific
results=
-children who observed agressive model imitated the physical aggresion they had seen
-children who observed non-aggresive model showed virtually no physical agression towards bobo
-imitation was closest and most frequent when observing model of the same sex
37
what were the strengths and weaknesses of bandura's study?
strengths;
-can be replicated, lab experiment so standardised procedure used, can check for consistency of results and be replicated
-has high internal validity, IV is completely controlled, can be sure that the IV is whats affecting the DV and not anything else
weaknesses;
-lacks generalisability, only used children during the study so sample is niche, so unsure whether people of other ages will act the same way
-ethical issues, protection from harm, exposed to aggression so can now be aggressive even after the study and could end up harmed due to this, not fulfilling is duty of care as a psychologist
lacks ecological validity, lab experiment used so artificial environment, not representitive of real life so cannot apply findings to real life
38
How can social learning theory be praised for having practical applications?
-concepts and findings from banduras research have been used to suggest how exposure to media violence contributes to violence in society
-theory has been influencial, resulting in age rating on films tv shows and games as well as the introduction of the watershed to limit childrens exposure to violent rolde models.
-demonstrates the contributions of the approach to wider society and its positibe economic implication as the creation of age ratings ensures that people of young ages arent exposed to violence
-less violent acts happening between people and there bring less financial strain on prisons and polie
-as a result they wouldnt have to pay more for the facilities of the potential prisoners.
-increases validity of the theory
39
how are concepts within social learning theory been supported by research?
-bandura completed a study that included children and there behaviour towards a bobo doll and whether they imitated what they saw
-he found that children who had previously observed someone act aggresively with a bobo doll would replicate this behaviour, same as when they saw someone act non-aggresively with the doll they would do the same
-provides evidence to suggest that we learn through observed behaviour
-increases the validity of the theory
40
how can social learning theory be criticised due to its experimental method?
-concepts within social learning theory have been rigorously tested within a laboratory context
-due to the artificial nature of the environments and tasks, could be argued that research within social learning theory lacks ecologivsl validity
-an issue as it could be possible that research here does not provide a real life accurate reflectionof social learning processes such sa observation and imitation in real life settings
41
how does social learning theory have a limited view regarding the origins of behaviour?
-focuses on our environment (nurture), specifically suggesting that individuals learn through observation and imitation
-therefore does not take into account the fact that behaviour cld be innate and results of our biology (nature)
-for example, role of hormones could even play a part in violent behaviour
-result os this, social learnign theory could be argued to be an incomplete explanation of human behaviour in which other influences such as biology should also be considered
42
what are the main assumptions of the cognitive approach?
-focuses on how cognitions/ internal mental processes (thoughts, perception, memory, attention) affect our behaviour
-has investigated areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behavioursits such as our emory, perception and thinking, suggesting that our mind works like a computer
-internal mental processes cannot be physically seen and observed
-cognitive psychologists have to study them indirectly by making inferences
43
what are inferences?
the process wheeby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate, based on what they can be physically see/observe
44
what are schemas?
-packages of infroation and ideas
-essentially mental blueprints/ cognitive frameworks we from which are developed and changed through our experiences
-born with basic schemas which become more detailed and sophisticated through experiences
45
strengths and weakness' of schemas?
-help us process and access infromation quickly as they create mental shortcuts for information
-can also cause disruptions such as causing a bias when recalling information in an EWT
-can cause perceptual errors when interpreting infromation
46
what are theoretical models?
-abstract
-information processinf approach which suggests that our information flows through our cognitive system in a sequence of stages
-the multistore mode
47
what are computer models?
-concrete
-cognitive psychologists study internal mental processes is through computer models
-compare the mind to a computer suggesting that there are similarities in the way information is processed
(input-process-output)
48
what is cognitive neuroscience?
the scientific study of biological structures that underpin/ influence our cognitive processes
-with advances in brain imaging techniques, researchers have been able to systematically observe and ecplain the neurological basis of our internal mental processes
-cognitive neuroscience can also involve studying brains of damaged patients
49
how is the cognitive approach praised for having practical applications?
-approach has led to the development of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), a form of therapy which is commonly used to treat a variety of mental health disorders such as depression and OCD
-demonstrates the contributions of the approach to wider society and its positive economic implications as we can now help those who struggle with mental health disorders due to this approach
-can now return to work due to them recieving therapy
-helps the economy as it creates jobs within therapy for people to take on
50
how is the role of schemas in learning supported by research?
-Allport and Postman conducted an experiment whereby participants were asked to describe a picture to another participant
-picture was of two men walking, a black man wearing a suit and a white man in overalls holding a razor
-results indicated that white patricipants tended to reverse the apperances during recall, some even describing the black individual was holding a knife opposite the white individual
-study provides evidence to suggest that schemas can play a crucial part in learning and recollection events as participants racist schemas at the time of the study distorted their memory
-increases validity for the role of schemas within the cognitive approach
51
how can the cognitive approach be criticised due to experimental methods used?
-has always used a lab-based environment in their studies, lack ecological validity due to environments being artificial and the tasks being unrealistic and not relevant to everyday life
-an issue because these findings cannot explain real life situations as the tasks used are unrealistic tasks that would not be done in everyday life
52
how can the computer analogy be criticised for being machine reductionist?
-there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer (inputs and outputs, storage systems etc.)
-the computer analogy has been criticised by many for not considering certain factors
-for example, the analogy completely ignores the influences of things such as human emotion and motivation and how these might affect our internal mental processes
-the computer analogy could be considered an incomplete way of investigatinf and explaining human behaviour whereby other influences/ factors involved in our cognition should be considered such as our emotions
53
what are the main assumptions of the biological approach?
- emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural functioning
-suggests that everything psychological has a biological basis
-to fully understand human behaviour, we must start by focusing on biological structures xuch as genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and processes within the body
54
what are genes?
make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which chosed the physical and psychological features of an organism
55
what do biological psychologists suggest about inheritance/ genes?
suggest that we do not just inherit physical features, but also psychological features, behaviours and characteristics
suggested that specific genes can also influence certain traits and mental health disorders
56
what are monozygotic twins?
identical twins that share **100%** of the same genes
57
what are dizygotic twins?
non identical twins that share 50% of the same genes
58
what is a concordance rate and what type of twins have the higher concordance rate?
concordance rate is the probability of which both twins share the same particular trait or characteristics
monozygotic twins would have a higher concordance rate as they share 100% genes so their physical and psychological features
59
what is a genotype?
the actual genetic makeup of an individual
provides a genetic code for how an individual will develop
60
what is a phenotype?
the product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment
it is the way the genes are expressed
61
what is evolution?
changes in inherited characteristics in a population over successive generations
62
what is natural selection?
any genetically determined trait/ behaviours and physical characteristics that enhances survival and reproduction which will therefpre continue into future generation
63
what are biological structures?
interactions between different regions of the brain which control different functions.
the brain can be subvided into several areas, structures and different brain areas are said to be responsible for different types of thinking and behaviour
examples: left hemisphere controls speech
64
what is neurochemistry?
chemicals (neurotransmitters) in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
example: dopamine levels have an effect on symptoms of schrizophrenia
65
How is the biological approach supported by practical applications?
-research into the effects of neurotransmitters on brainactivity has led to the development of drugs to treat mental health issues such as SSRIs in the treatment of depresson and OCD and snti-psychotics for schizophrenia
-demonstrates the contributions of the approach to wider society and its positive economic implications as the devlopment of drugs to treat mental health help those stuggling meaning that they can now return back to work, also opens job opportunities for those making the drugs.
66
How has the biological approach been supported by research?
-Nestadt investigated the influence of genes on obsessive-compulsive disorder by looking at first-degree relatives of 80 sufferers
-they dound that first degree relatives of OCD sufferers had an 11.7% chance of developing the disorder compared to 2.7% chance in first- degree relatives of healthy patients.
-provides evidence to suggest that genes play an important role in our behaviour and development of mental health disorders
-increases the validity of the biological approach as a whole
**CA: first degree siblings have the same environemnt, upbringings and lifestyle so that could have an effect on them developing the same mental health disorders
67
How can the biological approach be criticised regarding its scientific credibility?
- majority of the research within the approach is correlational, for exampe it suggested that OCD is correlated with low levels of serotonin when this might not be the true relationship between the two varaiables
-weakness as it means that several ideas and suggestions within the biological approach lack true **Cause X Effect**
-questions the validity of the biological approach
68
how can the biological approach be criticised for its limited view regarding the origins of behaviour?
-the biological approach completely disregards the nurture side of us as individuals and instead emphasises that our nature and biological proccees influences certain traits and disorders
-therefore lying on the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate
-as a result of this, the biological approach could be considered an incomplete explanation of behaviour in which other influences should also be considered (like interactions with out environment)
69
70
What are the auumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
suggests that there are different forces (dynamics) that operate on the mind. directing human behaviour and experiences.
most of these forces are said to be unconscious which we are unaware of
freud also suggested that the way in which we are treated by our parents as children shapes our adult behaviour and personality
71
State the three levels of consciousness
the unconscious
the pre-conscious
the conscious
72
what is the unconscious?
the part of the mind where we are unaware of but which we continue to direct most of our behaviour
a storehouse of biological drives and instincts that have a significant influence on our behaviour and personality
contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, locked away and forgotten
73
what is the pre-conscious?
partial thoughts and ideas we become aware of during dreams or freudian slips ( unintentional errors made in speech)
74
what is the conscious?
what we know, are aware of and have control over
75
explain the structure of our personality.
'Tripartite'
- composed of 3 parts, each with different levels of consciousness
Id- the pleasure principle
-gets what it wants and has completely unconscious drives and instincts
-is present at birth and is extremely selfish throughout life
Ego- the reality principle
-the mediator within our personality
-its role is to reduce conflict between the demands of the id and the superego (other parts of our personality)
Superego- the morality principle
-represents moral standards and our internalised sense of right vs wronf
76
what order do the levels of consciousness come in?
conscious
pre-conscious
unconscious
77
what are defence mechanisms?
-unconscious strategies that the ego use to manage conflict between the id and superego.
-ensure that the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas
78
what is repression?
forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind (send it into our unconscious which contains disturbing/ threatening memories that have been repressed)
79
what is denial?
refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
80
what is displacement?
transferring feelings from a true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
81
what are the psychosexual stages?
-freud suggestes that child development occurs in 5 developmental stages
-each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage
-any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation whereby the child becomes 'stuck' and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with the stage through to adult life
-freud believed that children are born with sexual pleasure/ urge and that there are a number of stages within childhood in which the child seeks pleasure from a different object
-to be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete each stage
82
what is the order of the psychosexual stages?
oral stage (0-1 years)
anal stage (1-3 years)
phallic stage (3-6 years)
latency stage (6-12 years)
genital stage (12+ years)
83
what is the oral stage?
source of pleasure:
mouth- sucking, swallowing etc , it is the way the child expresses early sexual energy
outcome:
oral fixation- smoking, biting nails, sarcastic , consequences= sensitivity
84
what is the anal stage?
source of pleasure:
-focus of pleasure is the anus
-child gains pleasure from witholding and expelling faeces
-successful completion when potty trained
outcome:
-anal retentive- perfectionist, obsessive
-anal expulsive- thoughtless, messy
85
what is the phallic stage?
source of pleasure:
oedipus complex (males)-
young male's attraction to their mother, believing that their father is mad at them for their attraction to their mother and will remove their penis
electra complex (females)-
young girls attraction to their father, believing that their mother had already removed their penis due to their attraction to their father
outcome:
OC- psychological issues: anxiety, difficulties forming healthy adult relationships
EC- neurosis, mental illness
86
what is the latency stage?
source of pleasure:
earlier conflicts are repressed
outcome:
fixation does not happen in this stage
87
what is the genital stage?
source of pleasure:
sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
outcome:
difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
88
what is the little hans case study?
-hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a phobia of hprses after seeing one collapse in the street.
-hans was 3 years old and had an active interest in his penis, having dreams about penises and asking his mother questions about them and if she had one
-age of 5 hans had developed a phobia of horses after witnessing one collapse and die in the street.
- started to believe that a horse would bite him in the street causing his sense of fear
-his phobia developed further, suffering from anxieties whilst being afraid to go out of the house as a result of his phobia
-freud believed that the horse was a symbol of his father and that he associated his fear of his father, with the fear of horses during his development within the oedipus complex
-black parts of the horse represented his father's features including his moustache, horses wearing blinkers he associated with his dads glasses, the father even recorded in an interview that hans said to him recently 'daddy don't trot away from me!'
89
what did freud conclude from little hans case study?
-his fear of his father onto the fear of horses
-hans was afraid of his father within the oedipus complex, believing that his father would castrate him for desiring his mother
-horses were symbolic of his father with hans fearing that the horse (father) would bite (castrate) him as a punishment of his desires for his mother
90
how is the psychodynamic approach supported by practical applications?
-the theory led to the later development of psychoanalysis
-was a treatment that used a variety of techniques in an attempt to analyse features of the unconscious
-had been successful in helping those suffering from mild neuroses ( mental disorders that cause a sense of distress and deficit in functioning)
-demonstrates the contributions of the approach to wider society and its positive economic implications as the development of psychoanalysis allows treatment for mental health disorders meaning they can return back to work and also providing jobs for people to work within psychoanalysis
91
how is the psychodynamic approach supported by research?
-case of little hans found that due to hans' fear of horses he had associated horses with his father and displaced this fear into his father showing that we use defence mechanisms such as displacement in traumatic situations
-provides evidence to suggest that our psychosexual stages play an important role in our behaviour and development
-increases validity
-however, case study lacks generalisability
92
how is the fact that the psychodynamic approach has unfalsified/untestable concepts a weakness?
-because parts of the approach such as the psychosexual stages are unfalsifiable and cannot be tested due to being abstract concepts
-as a result of this, makes it difficult/ almost impossible for researchers to provide empirical evidence and support for the approach
-questioning the validity of it
93
how is the psychodynamic approach criticised for being deterministic?
-because the approach is an example of psychic determinism, suggesting that our childhood and unconsciousness dictates and controls the majority of our behaviour
-as a result of this, the psychodynamic approach could be argued to be an incomplete explanation of behaviour, in which the concept of free will is completely disregarded and should be considered to some extenct
94
what are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?
-emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person's capacity for self-determination
-humanistic psychologists reject objective scientific method which establish general laws/ principles for behaviour and instead focus on the uniqueness of individuals
95
what is the concept of free will?
-the notion that humans can make choices and are self-determining
individuals are still affected by external and internal influences, but are also active agents who can determine their own uniqute development
humanistic psychologists say that we should not seek to develop general laws about behaviour but should concentrate on an individuals subjective experience (person-centred psychology)
96
what is determinism?
the opposite of free will
-the view that an individual's behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individuals will to do something
97
what approaches show free will and what approaches show determinism?
determinism:
behaviourist approach
social learning theory
cognitive approach
biological approach
psychodynamic approach
free will:
humanistic approach
98
what is self-actualisation and maslow's hierachy of needs?
self-actualisation is the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one's full potential, becoming what you are fully capable of
abraham maslow developed a hierachy of needs as a way of explaining motivation, it is a 5 levelled hierachial sequence in which certain levels of needs must be met in order to achieve self-actualisation (top level)
humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human
personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated
99
what is 'the self'?
the ideas, values and perceptions of what we do as a human being
100
what is congruence?
-states that personal growth can only be achieved if we have congruence
-when our perceptions of our actual self are similar/ equivalent to our ideal self
- when perceptions of our actual self and ideal self are far apart from each other, we have incongruence
101
what are the two issues that we might experience as adults that cause someone to be incongruent?
**lack of unconditional positive regard**- unconditional/ complate love and acceptance from our parents
**conditions of worth**- when a parent places limitations or boundaries on their love and acceptions of their children
102
what is client-centred therapy?
-helps reduce the gap between perceptions of their actual self and their ideal self and problems of everyday living
-is a modern-day psychotherapy which we see patients as clients rather than patients
-views the individual as the expert of their own condition, therfore the therapy is not directed by the therapist, instead the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions within a therapeutic atomsphere which is warm, supportive and non-judgemental
103
what are the three key things required by therapists in order to make the therapy effective?
GENUINENESS OF THE THERAPIST
-deep and genuine care for the client
EMPATHY
-therapists sghould put themselves 'in the shoes' of the client
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
-the therapist must accept the client's feeling and actions, even if they disagree with the behaviour
104
how does the humanistic approach have practical applications?
-theory led to later development of client centred therapy to help people reduce the gap between perceptions of their actual self and their ideal self
-additionally, maslow's hierachy had been influential in business and management to help motivate employees
-demonstrates the contributions of the approach to wider society and its positive economic implications as it allows those struggling to now receive help with their perceptions of themselves
-it also creates jobs for those who want to work within client centred therapy and it allows those who were struggling to return back to work and live their lives normally again
105
How is the humanistic approach supported by research?
-Harter et al, investigated potenital consequences of positive regard
-dicovered that conditional positive regard can result in 'false self-behaviour' and that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions to gain their parents' approval frequently did not view themselves in a positive light
-provides evidence to syggest that conditions of worth and a lack of unconditional positive regard causes people to view themselves negatively, and therefore have incongruence so congruence can only be achieved if these are present
-increases the validity of these concepts and the approach as a whole
106
How is the fact the the Humanistic approach has unfalsifiable/ untestable concepts a weakness?
-because concepts within the approach such as free will and determinism are abstract so therefore cannot be scientifically tested
-makes it difficult/ almost impossible for researchers to provide empirical evidence and support the approach
-questioning the validity of the approach
107
How is the fact that the humanistic approach is culturally biased a weakness?
-concepts within the approach such as individual free will and personal growth are more associated with individualistic cultures (valuing the rights and interests of the individual) rather than collectivist cultures (valuing the rights and interests of the group as a whole)
-as a result of this, it makes it difficult to apply ideas from this approach to individuals from collectivist cultures as this approach is a product of individualistic beliefs and norms.
