Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

what is the timeline of the emergence of psychology as a science?

Answer 1

-between 17th and 19th century = experimental philosophy, key philosophers were Descartes and John Locke
-1879 = Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental psychology lab in Germany, marked the beginning of scientific psychology
-1900s behaviourists = Sigmund Freud and the psychodynamic approach, John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner and the behaviourist approach, rejected introspection and argued that it was subjective so they used carefully controlled lab studies
-1950s humanistic approach = Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow rejected the behaviourist and psychodynamic view that human behaviour is predetermined
-1950s cognitive approach = cognitive psychologists likened the mind to a computer e.g. the multi-store model, tested their predictions about memory and attention using experiments ( scientific )
-1960s social learning theory = Albert Bandura emphasised the role of cognitive factors in learning, provided a bridge between the cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism
-1980s biological approach = researchers made use of recent advances in technology to investigate physiological processes e.g. using scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG to study live brain activity
-end of 21st century = cognitive neuroscience investigates how biological structures influence mental processes

Question 2

evaluate the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 2

-P = one strength is that research in modern psychology can claim to be scientific
-P = one limitation of psychology is that some approaches use subjective data
-P = question remains unanswered e.g. philosopher Thomas Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm i.e. a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who work within that subject agree on, which psychology doesn’t have as there is so much internal disagreement at its core, but most would agree it is the study of mind and behaviour

Question 3

why can modern psychology claim to be scientific?

Answer 3

-E = psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences i.e. to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour
-for instance, learning, cognitive and biological approaches all use scientific methods e.g. lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way
-E = this suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline

Question 4

why is it a limitation that not all approaches use objective methods?

Answer 4

-E = the humanistic approach does not formulate general laws of behaviour and prefers to focus on subjective experience, and the psychodynamic approach uses case studies with unrepresentative samples
-also, psychologists study humans who are active participants and therefore respond to demand characteristics
-E = therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience isn’t always possible

Question 5

what was Wundt’s role in the emergence of psychology as a science?

Answer 5

-he opened the first experimental psychology lab in Germany in 1879 where he pioneered introspection, the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind
-the aim was to describe the nature of human consciousness in a carefully controlled and scientific environment ( a lab )
-Wundt produced the first academic journal for psychological research and wrote the first textbook
-he is often referred to as the father of modern psychology
-his pioneering research set the foundation for approaches that were to come, particularly the behaviourist approach and cognitive psychology

Question 6

what is meant by introspection?

Answer 6

-a means of learning about one’s own currently ongoing mental states or processes

Question 7

what is meant by science?

Answer 7

-a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation with the aim to discover general laws

Question 8

what is the scientific method?

Answer 8

-the technique used to explore the assumptions that all behaviour is seen as being caused ( determined ), and as a result, it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions

Question 9

what is structuralism?

Answer 9

-the process of isolating conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

Question 10

what was Wundt’s method of introspection?

Answer 10

-one of his main objectives was to try and develop theories about mental processes, such as language and perception
-he recorded participants’ experiences of various stimuli they were presented with, such as different objects or sounds ( e.g. a ticking metronome )
-the observations were divided into three categories: thoughts, images and sensations ( structuralism )
-the same standardised instructions were issued to all participants and stimuli were always presented in the same order ( standardised procedures )

Question 11

evaluate Wundt’s role in the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 11

-P = one strength is that aspects of Wundt’s work are scientific, due to some of his methods being systematic and well-controlled
-P = one limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research are subjective thus unscientific by today’s standards
-P = another limitation is that researchers may not be inclined to trust his work due to the low internal validity i.e. inaccuracy, which suggests that his role is less important

Question 12

why are aspects of Wundt’s work considered to be scientific?

Answer 12

-E = he recorded the introspections within a controlled lab environment, ensuring that possible EVs were not a factor
-he also standardised his procedures so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way, allowing for replication and producing reliable data
-E = therefore Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach

Question 13

why are other aspects of Wundt’s work considered to be unscientific?

Answer 13

-E = he relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes, which produces subjective data influenced by a personal perspective
-participants may also have hidden some of their thoughts e.g. out of embarrassment ( social desirability bias )
-this makes it difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour, which means that Wundt’s methods don’t meet one of the aims of science i.e. to be able to predict future behaviour
-E = therefore Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry

Question 14

what are the learning approaches?

Answer 14

-behaviourist approach = a way of explaining behaviour in terms of learning and what is observable
-social learning theory = a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

Question 15

what does behaviourism assume?

Answer 15

-all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning
-a baby’s mind is a blank slate that is written on by experience
-only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
-not concerned with investigating mental processes of the mind because these were seen as irrelevant
-introspection was rejected as its concepts were vague and difficult to measure
-behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and so relied on lab studies
-the processes that govern learning are the same in all species, so animals can replace humans as experimental subjects in behaviourist research

Question 16

what is classical conditioning?

Answer 16

-learning through associations made between the UCS and the NS
-before conditioning, the UCS produces the UCR
-during conditioning, the NS is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing an UCR
-after conditioning, the NS becomes the CS, producing the CR

Question 17

what research is there on classical conditioning?

Answer 17

-Ivan Pavlov ( 1927 ) showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food
-before conditioning, the UCS ( food ) produced an UCR ( salivation )
-during conditioning, the UCS was repeatedly paired with a NS ( a bell ), producing the same UCR of salivation
-an association was made between the UCS and the NS
-after conditioning, the NS became the CS, producing the CR of salivation

Question 18

what is extinction?

Answer 18

-when the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, so the CR becomes extinct / disappears

Question 19

what is spontaneous recovery?

Answer 19

-when the individual carries out the CR some time after extinction has occurred

Question 20

what is generalisation in terms of CC?

Answer 20

-when slight changes in the CS, such as different pitches of the bell used in Pavlov’s experiment, still produces the same CR

Question 21

what is operant conditioning?

Answer 21

-learning through consequences i.e. reinforcement ( positive or negative ) and punishment
-an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment

Question 22

what are the three types of consequences of behaviour?

Answer 22

-positive reinforcement = receiving a reward when a behaviour is performed, e.g. doing homework to receive praise from a teacher
-negative reinforcement = avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed, e.g. doing homework to avoid being shouted at
-punishment = an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, e.g. being shouted at for not doing homework

Question 23

what is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?

Answer 23

-reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated, whereas punishment decreases this likelihood

Question 24

what research is there on operant conditioning?

Answer 24

-B.F. Skinner ( 1953 ) demonstrated the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement using rats in specially designed cages ( Skinner boxes )
-positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and so learnt to repeat this behaviour to increase their rewards
-negative reinforcement was shown when the rats learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock

Question 25

evaluate behaviourism

Answer 25

-P = one strength is that it is based on well-controlled research, counterpoint = it may oversimplify learning and ignore important influences on behaviour e.g. thought -P = another strength is behaviourist laws of learning have real-world application e.g. in institutions such as prisons and psychiatric wards, counterpoint = this doesn't apply to life after prison / psych ward so the extent of real-world application is limited -P = one limitation is behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism -P = another limitation is that as a result of the high degree of control, animals in the Skinner Box were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so they were always hungry, meaning there is a question of benefits versus costs, counterpoint = some would argue that there have been enormous benefits ( e.g. application to therapy ) which outweigh the ethical costs

Question 26

why is it a strength that behaviourism is based on well-controlled research?

Answer 26

-E = the approach has focused on the careful measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings -by breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible EVs were removed, allowing cause-and-effect relationships to be established, e.g. Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal's behaviour -E = this suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility -counterpoint = behaviourists may have ignored an important influence on learning i.e. human thought, whereas other approaches e.g. SLT and the cognitive approach have drawn attention to the mental processes involved in learning, which suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone

Question 27

why is it a strength that behaviourism has real-world application?

Answer 27

-E = the principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems -for example, OC is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions, such as prisons and psychiatric wards -these work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges -E = this increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application

Question 28

why is it a limitation that behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism?

Answer 28

-E = the approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned -Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history, ignoring any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour ( Skinner himself said that free will is an illusion ) -E = this is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour, as suggested by the cognitive approach

Question 29

what does SLT assume?

Answer 29

-learning occurs directly, through classical and operant conditioning, as suggested by the behaviourist approach, and indirectly, through vicarious reinforcement ( observation and imitation of others ) -learning occurs through the following stages: an observer identifies themselves with a desirable role model, who displays or models a specific behaviour, which is imitated by the observer -the likelihood that the observed behaviour will be imitated is increased if the role model is seen to be vicariously reinforced i.e. rewarded -emphasises the importance of cognitive processing of informational stimuli ( meditational processes ) and rejects the idea that learning is solely the outcome of a stimulus-response loop

Question 30

what is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 30

-a type of indirect learning which occurs when an observer sees their role model being rewarded for displaying a certain behaviour -the observer is then motivated to imitate this behaviour, in an effort to receive the same reward

Question 31

what is identification?

Answer 31

-when an observer associates i.e. identifies themselves with a role model and wants to be more like them -the role model is usually attractive, has high social status, is of a similar age and the same gender to the observer

Question 32

what is modelling?

Answer 32

-from the observer's perspective = imitating the behaviour of a role model -from the role model's perspective = the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer

Question 33

what are the mediational processes?

Answer 33

-cognitive processes which mediate / intervene in the learning process to determine whether imitation occurs -four mental / mediational processes were identified by Bandura: -attention = whether the behaviour is noticed -retention = whether the behaviour is remembered -motor reproduction = whether the observer is able to perform the behaviour -motivation = the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished -the first two of these relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two to the performance of behaviour, so, unlike behaviourism, observed behaviours do not always need to be reproduced at the same time

Question 34

what research is there on SLT?

Answer 34

-Bandura's Bobo Doll Study ( 1961 ) = participants ( children aged 3 to 6 years old ) in the experimental condition observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll and participants in the control condition observed an adult behaving non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll -findings = when given their own doll to play with, the children who had observed aggression were much more aggressive towards the doll -Bandura and Walters ( 1963 ) showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards the Bobo doll = participants in the first experimental condition observed the adult being praised, participants in the second experimental condition observed the adult being punished and participants in the control condition observed the aggression without any consequence -findings = when given their own doll, the children who had observed the aggression being rewarded were much more aggressive themselves, followed by the control group and then the second experimental group -conclusions = children are likely to imitate ( model ) acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model and modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded ( vicarious reinforcement )

Question 35

evaluate SLT

Answer 35

-P = one strength is that it recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning, counterpoint = it may make too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning e.g. mirror neurons in the brain -P = another strength is SLT principles have real-world application -P = another strength is that Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism i.e. we are influenced by our external environment, but we also exert an influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform, suggesting that there is some free will in the way we behave, which is a more realistic and flexible position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility of free will -P = one limitation is SLT relies too heavily on evidence from contrived lab studies

Question 36

why is it a strength that SLT recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning?

Answer 36

-E = neither CC nor OC can offer an adequate account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors are omitted -for instance, humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions -E = this suggests that SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach by recognising the role of mediational processes -counterpoint = SLT may make too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning because recent research suggests that observational learning is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain, which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people

Question 37

why is it a strength that SLT has real-world application?

Answer 37

-E = social learning principles such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from others around them, including the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies -this has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours such as how children come to understand their gender role by imitating role models in the media -E = this increases the value of SLT as it can account for real-world behaviour

Question 38

why is it a limitation that the evidence on which SLT is based was gathered through lab studies?

Answer 38

-E = for example, many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of children's behaviour in lab settings and this raises the problem of demand characteristics -it has been suggested that, because the main purpose of a Bobo doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected -E = this suggests that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life

Question 39

what is the cognitive approach?

Answer 39

-cognitive has come to mean mental processes, so it is focused on how our mental processes ( e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention ) affect behaviour

Question 40

what is meant by internal mental processes?

Answer 40

-private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

Question 41

what does the cognitive approach assume?

Answer 41

-the scientific and objective study of internal mental processes is possible -it studies those areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists e.g. memory, perception and thinking -these processes are private and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences ( reasoned conclusions ) about what is going on inside people's minds on the basis of their behaviour -mental processes are separate from the brain -the workings of a computer and the human mind are alike, so cognitive psychologists use computer ( and theoretical ) models to better understand cognitive processes

Question 42

what are schema?

Answer 42

-packages of ideas and information that are developed through experience and influence cognitive processing -they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system

Question 43

what is the role of schema?

Answer 43

-babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping -as we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated -they enable us to process large volumes of data quickly and efficiently, providing us with mental shortcuts to prevent us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli ( i.e. sensory overload ) -however, since schemas are pre-conceived, they may disort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors due to having already established mental framework

Question 44

how are theoretical models used to explain mental processes?

Answer 44

-they are abstract -one important theoretical model is the information processing approach, which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model -this is based on the way that computers function, but a computer model would involve actually programming a computer to see if it produces a similar output to humans

Question 45

how are computer models used to explain mental processes?

Answer 45

-they are concrete -computer models refer to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind, e.g. conversational machines to deal with consumer enquiries ( AI ) -if such instructions produce a similar output to the human mind then we can suggest that similar processes are going on -this enables psychologists to test their ideas about information processing

Question 46

what is cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 46

-the scientific study of the influence of biological structures i.e. the brain ( neuro ) on mental processes ( cognition ) -combines the cognitive and biological approaches

Question 47

how did cognitive neuroscience emerge?

Answer 47

-in the 1860s, Paul Broca identified how damage to an area of the left frontal lobe ( Broca's Area ) could permanently impair speech production -with advances in brain scanning technology in the last 20 years e.g. fMRI and PET scans, scientists have been able to systematically study the neurological basis of mental processes -this includes research in memory that has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex in the brain ( Tulving et al. 1994 ) -scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders, e.g. OCD and the parahippocampal gyrus which appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions -computer-generated models are also being used to read the brain, which has led to the development of mind-mapping techniques known as brain fingerprinting that could be used to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court

Question 48

what is machine reductionism?

Answer 48

-reducing human personality and behaviour to the level of a computer, neglecting the role of emotion and motivation on actions

Question 49

evaluate the cognitive approach

Answer 49

-P = one strength is that it uses scientific and objective methods, counterpoint = it may lack external validity and not represent everyday experience due to the use of inference and artificial stimuli e.g. word lists -P = another strength is that it has real-world application -P = another strength is that it is founded on soft determinism i.e. the view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can also exert our free will at times, suggesting that the cognitive approach takes a more flexible middle-ground position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach, and is more in line with our subjective sense of free will -P = one limitation is that it is based on machine reductionism

Question 50

why is it a strength that the cognitive approach uses scientific and objective methods?

Answer 50

-E = cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study ( e.g. lab studies which produce reliable, objective data ) in order to infer cognitive processes at work -in addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study -E = this means that the study of the mind has a credible, scientific basis -counterpoint = as it relies on the inference of mental processes rather than direct observation of behaviour, cognitive psychology can sometimes be too abstract and theoretical, and research studies often use artifical stimuli such as word lists, meaning research on cognitive processes may lack external validity and not represent everyday experience

Question 51

why is it a strength that the cognitive approach has real-world application?

Answer 51

-E = the cognitive approach is dominant in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts -for instance, AI and the development of robots, the treatment of depression e.g. by cognitive behavioural therapy ( CBT ), and improving the reliability of eyewitness testimony -E = this supports the value of the cognitive approach

Question 52

why is it a limitation that the cognitive approach is based on machine reductionism?

Answer 52

-E = although there are similarities between the operations of the human mind and computers ( inputs and outputs, storage systems, the use of a central processor ), the computer analogy has been criticised -for instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses -E = this suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach

Question 53

what is the biological approach?

Answer 53

-it emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genes and neurochemistry

Question 54

what does the biological approach assume?

Answer 54

-humans are biological organisms made up of physiological processes -therefore, all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin and ultimately have a physical basis -this means that the mind lives in the brain and is not separate ( as viewed by the cognitive approach ) -the actions of genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and neurochemical mechanisms must be understood in order to explain human behaviour fully

Question 55

what is neurochemistry?

Answer 55

-relating to the action of chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning -neurotransmitters transmit messages -an imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorders, e.g. underproduction of the neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD and overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia

Question 56

what are genes?

Answer 56

-they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism ( e.g. eye colour, height ) and psychological features ( e.g. mental disorder, intelligence ) -genes are transmitted from parents to offspring, i.e. inherited

Question 57

what is meant by concordance rates?

Answer 57

-the extent to which twins share the same characteristic -the proportion ( % ) of pairs of individuals that share a particular attribute

Question 58

what is the genetic basis of behaviour?

Answer 58

-psychological characteristics ( e.g. intelligence ) are inherited in the same way as height or eye colour -twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis, which is achieved by analysing concordance rates between twins -higher concordance rates among identical ( monozygotic, MZ ) twins, who share 100% of the same genes, than non-identical ( dizygotic, DZ ) twins, who share about 50% of the same genes, is evidence of a genetic basis ( nature ) -a difference between the concordance rates of dizygotic twins and ordinary siblings, who both share about 50% of the same genes, is evidence of an environmental basis ( nurture ) because twins are generally subject to the same experience growing up

Question 59

what is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Answer 59

-genotype = the particular set of genes that a person possesses i.e. their actual genetic make-up -phenotype = the characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment i.e. the physical expression of their genotype -an example of the influence of environmental factors on the expression of genotype ( phenotype ) is PKU, a genetic disorder that can be prevented by a restricted diet low in protein, which suggests that much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture

Question 60

what is evolution?

Answer 60

-the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations, explained by the theory of natural selection proposed by Darwin ( 1859 )

Question 61

what is the theory of natural selection?

Answer 61

-any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed on to future generations, i.e. be naturally selected -such genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring certain advantages -e.g. attachment behaviours in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected -the possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these traits

Question 62

evaluate the biological approach

Answer 62

-P = one strength is that it uses scientific methods -P = another strength is that it has real-world application, counterpoint = the approach's value is challenged by the fact that antidepressant drugs do not work for everyone -P = one limitation is that it is determinist -P = another limitation is that critics of Darwin's work, such as Karl Popper, claim it is not possible to show evolution happening, only that it has taken place ( unfalsifiable ), counterpoint = others argue that natural selection is supported by fossil records e.g. gradually changing forms from dinosaurs to birds, so although natural selection is not able to tell us what species will evolve into, it provides an adequate account of past development

Question 63

why is it a strength that the biological approach uses scientific methods?

Answer 63

-E = in order to investigate both genetic and neurochemical factors, the biological approach makes use of a range of precise and highly objective methods -these include scanning techniques, e.g. fMRI, which assess biological processes in ways that are not open to bias -E = this means that much of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data

Question 64

why is it a strength that the biological approach has real-world application?

Answer 64

-E = understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain has led to the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders -for example, drugs that treat clinical depression increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at the synapse and reduce depressive symptoms -E = this means that people with depression are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life -counterpoint = antidepressant drugs do not work for everyone ( Cipriani et al. 2018 compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness ), which challenges the value of the biological approach as it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of e.g. depression

Question 65

why is it a limitation that the biological approach is determinist?

Answer 65

-E = biological explanations tend to be determinist in that they see human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control -however, the way genotype is expressed ( phenotype ) is heavily influenced by the environment, e.g. not even identical twins who share the same genes look and think exactly the same -E = this suggests that the biological view is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment