Research methods Flashcards

Question

how can the effects of extraneous or confounding variables be minimised?

Answer 1

-randomisation = the use of chance to reduce the effects of bias from investigator effects -standardisation = using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study to eliminate non-standardised instructions as being possible extraneous variables

Answer 2

-the way in which participants are used in experiments i.e. how they are arranged in relation to the different experimental conditions

Answer 3

-independent groups -repeated measures -matched pairs

Answer 4

-when the order of conditions affects participants' behaviour -e.g. tiredness, fatigue, boredom, practice

Answer 5

-counterbalancing = half the participants experience the conditions in one order ( AB ), and the other half in the opposite order ( BA )

Answer 6

-when two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment -if there are two levels of the IV this means that all participants experience one level of the IV only -the performance of the two groups would then be compared

Answer 7

-no order effects as participants are only involved in one condition -less time-consuming so easier to implement -less demand characteristics as they are only involved in one condition so are less likely to guess the aims of the study

Answer 8

-less economical as each participant contributes a single result only so more money is spent on recruiting participants and buying resources -the participants who occupy the different groups are not the same in terms of participant variables so these differences may act as a confounding variable, reducing the validity of the findings

Answer 9

-random allocation = ensuring that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition of the IV as any other -identify participants and allocate them a name or number ( to make it anonymous ), put this name or number into a hat ( not a computer ), randomly pull from the hat the number of participants needed, and assign alternate names to the different conditions

Answer 10

-when all participants experience both conditions of the experiment -the data from both conditions would then be compared to see if there was a difference

Answer 11

-eliminates participant variables, increasing validity -more economical and less time-consuming as fewer participants are needed and each participant generates more data

Answer 12

-order effects which act as a confounding variable as boredom or fatigue may cause deterioration in performance on the second task, or participants' performance may improve through the effects of practice -demand characteristics as it is more likely that participants will work out the aim of the study when they experience all conditions of the experiment

Answer 13

-when participants are paired together on a variable that has been found to affect the DV -identify an extraneous variable, design a suitable test, collect the scores and pair up those who are similar, and randomly allocate one person from each pair to a condition

Answer 14

-no order effects as participants are only involved in one condition -matching minimises participant variables as extraneous variables -less demand characteristics as participants are only involved in one condition so are less likely to guess the aim of the study

Answer 15

-matching is time-consuming and expensive, particularly if a pre-test is required, so less economical -participants can never be matched exactly so there is still chance of participant variables affecting the DV -matching means that if one member of a pair drops out, the other will have to -a large pool of potential participants is needed which can be hard to get -difficult to know which variables are appropriate for the participants to be matched on

Answer 16

-when a conflict or dilemma exists between participants' rights and researchers' needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings -the British Psychological Society sets out ethical guidelines which are upheld by ethics committees in research institutions, e.g. University of Manchester

Answer 17

-a quasi-legal document produced by the BPS that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and isn't acceptable when dealing with participants -built around respect, competence, responsibility and integrity

Answer 18

-may damage their reputation or lose their job -may damage the reputation of Psychology as a whole -research is less likely to be funded or published in journals -may face legal challenges

Answer 19

-informed consent -deception -protection from harm -privacy and confidentiality

Answer 20

-making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights ( including the right to withdraw partway through ) and what their data will be used for so they can then make an informed judgement -however, this can lead to demand characteristics because participants' behaviour will not be natural as they know the aims of the study, decreasing the validity of the results

Answer 21

-participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate -assuming the participant agrees, this is then signed -for investigations involving children under 16, a signature of parental consent is required

Answer 22

-presumptive consent = when a researcher gathers opinions from a group like the participants in the study but does not inform the actual participants, which eliminates demand characteristics but may be unethical as they are not the same people -prior general consent = participants give permission to take part in many studies including one that will involve deception so they are effectively consenting to be deceived -retrospective consent = when participants are asked for their consent during debriefing having already taken part in the study, they may not have been aware of their participation or may have been subject to deception

Answer 23

-deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation to avoid demand characteristics -this can be justified as long as no harm is caused, e.g. not telling participants they have been given a placebo

Answer 24

-participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives and should be protected from physical and psychological harm

Answer 25

-a full debrief is given to participants at the end of the study to make them aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were not supplied with beforehand, such as the existence of other groups or experimental conditions -they should also be told what their data will be used for and must be given the right to withdraw and the right to withhold data if they wish -if participants have any concerns, they should be given reassurance -in extreme cases of harm, the researcher is responsible for providing follow-up care ( e.g. counselling ) -a cost-benefit analysis should be done before a study is carried out to determine whether it will be ethical and should go ahead

Answer 26

-participants have the right to control information about themselves ( i.e. the right of privacy ) which extends to the area where the study took place -confidentiality refers to our right, enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act, to have any personal data protected

Answer 27

-personal details must be protected or not collected i.e. maintain anonymity -researchers usually refer to participants using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation to minimise personal details -during briefing and debriefing, participants are told that their data will be protected and won't be shared with other researchers

Answer 28

-laboratory -field -natural -quasi

Answer 29

-an experiment that takes place in a highly controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV -not always conducted in a lab

Answer 30

-high degree of control over CVs and EVs so only the IV affects the DV, resulting in high internal validity -replication is more possible due to the high degree of control, which ensures the findings are reliable

Answer 31

-low ecological validity as the high degree of control makes the situation artificial and not like everyday life, so participants may behave unnaturally -demand characteristics are more likely as participants know they are being tested -low mundane realism as the tasks participants are asked to carry out may not represent everyday experience

Answer 32

-the extent to which a study matches the real world situation to which its results will be applied

Answer 33

-an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV -the researcher goes to the participants' everyday environment rather than a lab

Answer 34

-higher mundane realism due to a more natural environment so behaviour is more authentic, leading to high external validity

Answer 35

-loss of control over CVs and EVs so the cause and effect between the IV and DV is more difficult to establish and precise replication is often not possible -ethical issues as participants may be unaware they are being studied so they cannot give informed consent and such research might be an invasion of privacy

Answer 36

-an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there -natural is not a setting but rather the IV as participants may be tested in a lab

Answer 37

-provide the opportunity to research a field that is difficult to study for practical or ethical reasons -high external validity as real-world issues are being studied as they happen, such as the effects of a natural disaster on stress levels

Answer 38

-a naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research and decreasing generalisability to other similar situations ( low ecological validity ) -participants cannot be randomly allocated to experimental conditions so the cause and effect between the IV and DV becomes unclear -demand characteristics and low mundane realism if conducted in a lab

Answer 39

-an experiment where the IV is based on an existing difference between people ( e.g. gender or age ) so it has not been manipulated by the researcher and participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions -it is different to a natural experiment because the experimenter makes the situation occur and without them it wouldn't be happening

Answer 40

-often carried out under controlled conditions so have high control over CVs and EVs ( high internal validity ) and replication is possible

Answer 41

-participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions so there may be confounding variables, making it harder to conclude that the IV caused the effect on the DV -IV is not deliberately changed by the researcher so we cannot claim that the IV has caused any observed change

Answer 42

-the large group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying, from which a smaller sample is drawn -often called the target population because it is a subset of the general population

Answer 43

-a group of people who take part in a research investigation, which is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population

Answer 44

-when certain groups are over- or under-represented within the sample selected, limiting the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population

Answer 45

-a sample that reflects the characteristics of the people in the target population, which means the results are high in population validity

Answer 46

-random sampling -stratified sampling -systematic sampling -opportunity sampling -volunteer sampling

Answer 47

-when all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected -a complete list of all members of the target population is obtained and then each name is assigned a different number -the actual sample is selected through the use of a lottery method ( a random number generator or picking numbers from a hat )

Answer 48

-partially unbiased ( no researcher bias ) so confounding or extraneous variables should be equally divided between the different groups, enhancing internal validity

Answer 49

-difficult and time-consuming to conduct as a complete list of the target population needs to be obtained -volunteer bias as participants can refuse to take part so you can end up with something more like a volunteer sample which is unrepresentative -potentially unrepresentative as it is still possible that people from the target population with very similar characteristics will be selected

Answer 50

-when every nth member of the target population is selected, e.g. every 5th pupil on a register or every 3rd house on a street -a sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population organised e.g. into alphabetical order -a sampling system is nominated i.e. every 3rd, 6th or 8th person etc. and then the sampling frame is worked through until the sample is complete

Answer 51

-objective as once the sampling system has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen, so no researcher bias

Answer 52

-time-consuming to conduct -volunteer bias as participants can refuse to take part so you can end up with something more like a volunteer sample which is unrepresentative

Answer 53

-when the composition of the sample reflects the varying proportions of people in certain subgroups ( strata ) within the target / wider population -the researcher identifies the different strata that make up the population and then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out -the sample is selected at random from each stratum using a random allocation method

Answer 54

-representative sample as it accurately reflects the composition of the population so generalisation is possible and high population validity -no researcher bias as the selection of participants within each stratum is done randomly

Answer 55

-the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of the target population is not possible

Answer 56

-when representative samples of the target population are so difficult to obtain, many researchers simply decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available at the time of their study

Answer 57

-convenient and less costly in terms of time and money as a list of members of the target population is not required and there is no need to divide the population into different strata

Answer 58

-unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area so findings cannot be generalised to the target population -researcher bias is presented as the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants so may avoid people they don't like the look of

Answer 59

-involves self-selection whereby the participant offers to take part either in response to an advert or when asked to

Answer 60

-easy and less time-consuming as requires minimal input from the researcher -participants are more likely to be engaged and cooperate in the study as they are willing to take part

Answer 61

-volunteer bias as asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of person so generalisability is affected -participants may try to please the researcher so behaviour is unnatural

Answer 62

-a small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted -they are carried out to allow potential problems of the study to be identified and the procedure to be modified to deal with these -this also saves money and time in the long run

Answer 63

-questionnaire / interview = check that the questions are clear and make sense, check that the questions relate to the research aim, check that all the questions can be completed in the time given -observation = check the behavioural categories work, train observers to notice the behaviour, check the time / event sampling works for the study -experiment = check the method matches the aim, check there is enough stimuli to fill the time, check if help from another researcher is needed, check that the instructions make sense to the participants

Answer 64

-a research procedure in which the researchers don't tell the participants which condition of the experiment they are in or whether there is another condition at all -any information that might create expectations is not revealed until the end of the study to control the confounding effects of demand characteristics

Answer 65

-a research procedure in which neither the participants nor the researcher who conducts the study is aware of the aims of the investigation or who is receiving a particular treatment -this is useful for preventing bias due to demand characteristics or the placebo effect, and reducing investigator effects

Answer 66

-a non-experimental method which provides psychologists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them, allowing them to study observable behaviour within a natural or controlled setting -it is often used within an experiment to assess the DV

Answer 67

-people often do not act the same as they say they would, so observational methods capture what people actually do and give a special insight into behaviour

Answer 68

-observer bias presented as the observer's interpretation of a situation may be affected by their expectations, which may be reduced by using more than one observer -they cannot demonstrate casual relationships, only aid in detecting cause-and-effect relationships in experiments

Answer 69

-naturalistic observation -controlled observation -overt observation -covert observation -participant observation -non-participant observation

Answer 70

-watching and recording behaviour in the setting or context within which it would normally occur

Answer 71

-high mundane realism and thus external ( ecological ) validity as done in a natural environment, so findings can be generalised to everyday life

Answer 72

-lack of control over the research situation makes replication difficult -there may be many uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables that make it more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour -low internal validity if participants become aware that they are being watched and begin to respond to DCs

Answer 73

-watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one where some variables are controlled / manipulated such as in a lab setting

Answer 74

-high internal validity and external reliability as there is more control over CVs and EVs so replication is easier -researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of behaviour

Answer 75

-low mundane realism so low ecological validity, meaning findings cannot be as readily applied / generalised to everyday life -DCs more likely, so more likely to be observing inauthentic behaviour as takes place in an unnatural environment

Answer 76

-participants' behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

Answer 77

-ethical as informed consent is given

Answer 78

-DCs more likely, so more likely to be recording unnatural behaviour as participants know they are being observed, which reduces the internal validity of the findings

Answer 79

-participants' behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

Answer 80

-removes the problem of DCs as participants don't know they are being watched -natural behaviour recorded so high internal validity of the data gathered

Answer 81

-ethical issues presented as no informed consent given and right of privacy violated

Answer 82

-the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour is being observed and recorded

Answer 83

-can be more insightful which increases the external validity of the findings -DCs less likely as participants are unaware of the researcher

Answer 84

-researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity, which reduces the internal validity of the findings -there is always the possibility that behaviour may change if the participants were to find out they are being watched

Answer 85

-the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour is being observed and recorded

Answer 86

-allows the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from their participants so they are less likely to identify with them, which increases internal validity

Answer 87

-researchers may lose some valuable insight as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying, which reduces external validity

Answer 88

-when an observer's reports are biased by what they expect to see -the inter-observer reliability of the observation can be checked by comparing the reports of many researchers conducting the observational study and calculating a score using the formula: total number of agreements / total number of observations x 100 -any score above 80% shows high inter-observer reliability

Answer 89

-structured observation = when there is too much going on in a single observation for the researcher to record it all, the target behaviours are simplified using predetermined lists of behaviours ( behavioural categories ) and sampling methods -unstructured observation = consists of continuous recording where the researcher writes down everything they see during the observation

Answer 90

-easier as is more systematic -produces quantitative data which is more straightforward to analyse and compare with other data -less risk of observer bias as objective behavioural categories are present

Answer 91

-less richness and depth of detail in the data collected which reduces external validity -difficult to achieve high inter-observer reliability as filling the predetermined lists in is subjective

Answer 92

-more richness and depth of detail which increases external validity

Answer 93

-produces qualitative data which is more difficult to record and analyse -greater risk of observer bias as the researcher may only record those behaviours that 'catch their eye' ( i.e. are noticed ) and these may not be the most important or useful

Answer 94

-when a target behaviour is broken up into precise components that are observable, measurable and self-evident, which is similar to operationalisation -there should be no need for further interpretation or inferences to be made as two observers might interpret it differently and thus it would not be a reliable category -e.g. aggressive behaviour can be broken down into shouting, punching, swearing etc.

Answer 95

-makes data collection structured and objective which reduces the risk of observer bias

Answer 96

-researchers must ensure that the categories are as clear and unambigious as possible, they are exclusive and do not overlap, and all possible forms of the target behaviour are included in the checklist, otherwise data collection may be unreliable

Answer 97

-time sampling = involves recording the behaviour of the target individual / group within a pre-established time frame, e.g. every 30 seconds -event sampling = involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out by the target individual / group, e.g. how many times they shout

Answer 98

-less time-consuming as it reduces the number of observations that have to be made

Answer 99

-the small amount of data that is collected within the pre-established time frame might be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole

Answer 100

-useful for infrequent behaviours that are likely to be missed if time sampling was used

Answer 101

-the observer may overlook important details of the behaviour if the specific event is too complex -there could be counting errors if the behaviour is very frequent -difficult to judge the beginning and end of a behaviour

Answer 102

-any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and experiences related to a given topic

Answer 103

-questionnaires = a set of written questions used to assess a person's thoughts and / or feelings -interviews = a live encounter where an interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee's thoughts and / or experiences

Answer 104

-cost-effective -gathers large amounts of data quickly as can be distributed to large numbers of people -involves minimal effort as the researcher doesn't need to be present ( e.g. if postal questionnaire is used ) -data is usually easy to analyse ( e.g. if fixed-choice closed questions are used ) -data lends itself to statistical analysis and comparisons between groups of people can be made using graphs and charts -participants are usually more open as they can be anonymous

Answer 105

-take a long time to design -reponses given may not always be truthful -difficult to assess the validity as biases such as social desirability bias ( when participants want to present themselves in a positive light which may influence their answers ) are presented -participant bias presented from factors such as age, gender etc. -reponse bias presented e.g. acquiescence whereby participants simply agree with all the questions instead of putting effort into considering an answer for each question

Answer 106

-open question = phrased in a way that the respondent is free to answer in any way they wish, there are no restrictions, collects qualitative data -closed question = restricts the participant to a fixed number of answers, collects quantitative data

Answer 107

-rich in depth and detail which increases external validity -useful for sensitive topics as participants can elaborate on their answers

Answer 108

-difficult to convert to statistical data hence more difficult to analyse

Answer 109

-likert scale = respondents indicate their agreement ( or otherwise ) with a statement, ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree -rating scale = respondents identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic -fixed-choice scale = includes a list of possible options and repondents indicate those that apply to them

Answer 110

-data is easy to analyse and compare with data from elsewhere

Answer 111

-lack of depth and detail which reduces external validity -can be limiting which can be frustrating for participants

Answer 112

-structured = involves a set of pre-determined questions that the interviewer asks in a fixed order and for each waits for a suitable response -unstructured = no set questions, instead questions develop as the interview goes on, which is more free-flowing and allows for questions to be tailored to individuals -semi-structured = most of the questions are pre-determined but the interviewer is free to ask any follow-up questions based on previous answers

Answer 113

-straightforward to replicate due to their standardised format which also reduces differences between interviewers -can easily make comparisons between participants which is a strong benefit for job interviews

Answer 114

-interviewer bias presented through aspects such as body language, listening skills, when to ask a question and interpretative bias ( i.e. how answers are recorded ) -social desirability bias presented -the richness of the data collected is limited ( as well as unexpected data ) due to being unable to deviate from questions -not being able to elaborate can be frustrating for participants

Answer 115

-lots of data is collected with more depth and detail -as can be tailored to individuals, they can provide more insight into the worldview of the interviewee, including eliciting unexpected information

Answer 116

-skilled and experienced interviewers needed to establish sufficient rapport with participants so that responses are more truthful -interviewer bias presented -social desirability bias presented -difficult to make comparisons between participants -analysis of data is difficult as the researcher may have to sift through much irrelevant data and drawing firm conclusions may be difficult

Answer 117

-clarity = questions should be phrased in such a way that it is clear for the respondent on what answer is needed from them -avoid overuse of jargon ( complex, technical terms ), emotive language / leading questions ( guides the respondent towards a particular answer ), double-barrelled questions ( contains two questions in one ), double negatives = all these can cause biases which affects the validity of the results -sequencing questions = easy questions first, followed by the harder ones which allows a build up of confidence in each participant -filler questions = questions which have nothing to do with the aims of the investigation are put in to distract the participant from guessing the real aim of the study, therefore demand characteristics are eliminated -pilot study = can be carried out to ensure that the questions are suitable, and if not amendments and improvements can be made

Answer 118

-recording information = this can be done in various ways e.g. writing down answers, using an audio / video recorder -ethical issues = informed consent is needed from the interviewee for the researcher to obtain and keep the data, and they should be reminded that their answers will be kept confidential which is especially important for personal or sensitive topics -location = a quiet room away from other people is the most appropriate as it is likely to get the interviewee to feel comfortable and open up -neutral questions = these are usually started with to make the interviewee feel relaxed and comfortable, and help establish rapport

Answer 119

-a mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association / relationship between two variables, which are called co-variables ( things that are being measured ) -the strength and direction of an association is plotted on a scattergram, with one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis

Answer 120

-positive = as one co-variable increases so does the other, so the line of best fit on a scattergram has a positive gradient -negative = as one co-variable increases the other decreases, so the line of best fit on a scattergram has a negative gradient -no / zero = there is no relationship between the co-variables, so no line of best fit can be drawn on a scattergram as the points are random

Answer 121

-experiment = the researcher manipulates the IV in order to measure the effect on the DV, so it is possible to infer that the IV caused any observed changes in the DV -correlation = there is no manipulation of variables since they are simply being measured, so only an association is found and it is not possible to establish cause and effect between the two co-variables

Answer 122

-directional = there will be a positive / negative correlation between the co-variables -non-directional = there will be a correlation between the co-variables -null = there will be no correlation between the co-variables

Answer 123

-they can be used as starting points to assess the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables before committing to conducting an experimental study -quick and economical to carry out -secondary data can be used, which makes it even less time-consuming than experiments -there is no need for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required

Answer 124

-as a result of the lack of experimental manipulation and control, they cannot establish a cause and effect relationship and therefore it is not known which co-variable is causing the other to change -the third variable problem is presented in which there is a chance that another untested variable is causing the relationship between the two co-variables, leading to false conclusions about causes of behaviour -they are often presented as casual ( e.g. by the media ) when they only show how two variables are related, so correlations tend to be misused or misinterpreted, leading to false conclusions about causes of behaviour

Answer 125

-qualitative -quantitative -primary -secondary

Answer 126

-qualitative = data that is expressed in words and non-numerical, e.g. an extract from a diary -quantitative = data that can be counted / is numerical, e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes

Answer 127

-more richness and depth of detail -allows participants to further develop their opinions on a given subject hence higher external validity -provides a more meaningful insight into the participants' views

Answer 128

-difficult to analyse and tends not to lend itself to being summarised statistically so it may be hard to identify patterns and make comparisons -researcher bias presented as conclusions rely on the subjective interpretations of the researcher ( interpretative bias )

Answer 129

-can be analysed statistically so converted to graphs and charts -easy to make comparisons with other data -numerical data tends to be more objective and less open to bias

Answer 130

-much narrower in meaning and detail -no meaningful insight into participants' views -lower external validity so may fail to represent real life

Answer 131

-primary = information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purpose of the investigation -secondary = information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project

Answer 132

-targets the exact information which the researcher needs, so the data is directly relevant to the research aims

Answer 133

-requires time and effort e.g. to design and conduct an experiment -can be expensive

Answer 134

-inexpensive as the data already exists -easily accessed and so requires minimal effort

Answer 135

-information may be outdated or incomplete -the content of the data may not quite match the researcher's needs or objectives, challenging the validity of any conclusions

Answer 136

-the process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic to produce an overall statistical conclusion ( the effect size )

Answer 137

-the eventual sample size is much larger than individual samples which increases the extent to which generalisations can be made, increasing the validity of conclusions -uses secondary data so not time-consuming or expensive

Answer 138

-publication bias presented as the researcher may not select all relevant studies, choosing to leave out those with negative or non-significant results, decreasing the validity of any conclusions -uses secondary data so information may not be valid or reliable

Answer 139

-the use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data

Answer 140

-measures of central tendency -measures of dispersion

Answer 141

-any measure of the average value in a set of data

Answer 142

-mean = the arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values -median = the middle value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest -mode = the most frequently occurring value in a set of data

Answer 143

-the most sensitive of the three as it includes all the values in the data set within the calculation, meaning it is more representative of the data set as a whole

Answer 144

-easily distorted by outliers / extreme values so it can be unrepresentative

Answer 145

-less affected by extreme values as it is only focused on the middle value so may be more representative -easy to calculate once the values are in ascending order

Answer 146

-less sensitive than the mean as the actual values of lower and higher numbers are ignored and extreme values may be important

Answer 147

-the only appropriate measure for categorical / nominal data -very easy to calculate

Answer 148

-the mode may be at one extreme -not useful when there are several modes

Answer 149

-any measure of the spread or variation in a set of data

Answer 150

-range = the difference between the highest and lowest value ( sometimes 1 is added if values have been rounded up or down as a mathematical correction ) -standard deviation ( SD ) = a measure of the average spread around the mean ( the larger the SD, the more spread out the data is )

Answer 151

-easy to calculate due to its simple formula

Answer 152

-only takes into account the two most extreme values which may be unrepresentative -doesn't account for the distribution of the values as it doesn't indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly

Answer 153

-more precise as it includes all values within the final calculation

Answer 154

-difficult to calculate -can be distorted by extreme values -extreme values may not be revealed, unlike with the range

Answer 155

-summary tables -bar charts -histograms -line graphs -scattergrams

Answer 156

-data is not in the form of raw scores but has been converted to descriptive statistics -a summary paragraph beneath the table explains the findings and draws conclusions

Answer 157

-allows for the difference in mean values to be seen more clearly -the categories ( discrete data ) are plotted on the horizontal x-axis and the frequency on the vertical y-axis -the height of each bar represents the frequency of that item -the bars are separated to denote that we are dealing with separate conditions

Answer 158

-the bars touch each other which shows that the x-axis is continuous rather than discrete -the x-axis is made up of equal-sized intervals of a single category and must start at a true zero -the y-axis represents the frequency within each interval -the area of the bars represents frequency

Answer 159

-represent continuous data and use points connected by lines to show how something changes in value e.g. over time -the IV is plotted on the x-axis and the DV on the y-axis

Answer 160

-shows the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis rather than differences -either of the co-variables occupies the x-axis and the other the y-axis -each dot represents one pair of related data ( i.e. the x and y position of the co-variables )

Answer 161

-normal = a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern as most items are in the middle area of the curve and the mean, median and mode all occupy the same mid-point of the curve -skewed = a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical and the data clusters to one end because most items are either at the lower or upper end of the distribution

Answer 162

-positive = the long tail is on the positive ( right ) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left -negative = the long tail is on the negative ( left ) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right

Answer 163

-the mean is higher than the mode and median -the mode is the highest point on the peak, the median comes next, and the mean is dragged across to the right -e.g. a very difficult test in which most people get low marks

Answer 164

-the mean is lower than the mode and median -the mode is the highest point on the peak, the median comes next, and the mean is dragged across to the left -e.g. a very easy test in which most people get high marks

Answer 165

-the assessment of scientific work by specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality -before a piece of research can become part of a journal, all aspects of the written investigation must be scrutinised by a small group of usually two or three experts who should conduct an objective review and be unknown to the researcher

Answer 166

-to establish which research is worthwhile so that funding can be allocated to it -to validate the quality and relevance of research to prevent fraudulent research from being released to the public -to suggest possible amendments or improvements to the report

Answer 167

-preserves the reputation of psychology as a science and increases the credibility and status of the subject by protecting the quality of published research

Answer 168

-a minority of reviewers may use their anonymous status to criticise rival researchers, especially if they are competing for limited research funding, meaning that anonymity affects the objectivity of reviewers -publication bias presented as journal editors tend to prefer to publish 'headline-grabbing' findings and positive results, meaning that research which doesn't meet these criteria is ignored ( file drawer problem ) which may create a false impression of the current state of psychology -ground-breaking research may be buried as reviewers may be much more critical of research that contradicts their own view, meaning that peer review may slow down the rate of change within scientific disciplines

Answer 169

-the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services

Answer 170

-how what we learn from the findings of psychological research influences our country's financial prosperity

Answer 171

-recent research has emphasised the importance of the father in a child's healthy psychological development, which may promote more flexible working arrangements within the family, meaning that modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy

Answer 172

-1/3 of all absences from work are caused by mental disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress -psychological research into the causes and treatments of mental disorders means that people have access to therapies ( e.g. CBT ) or psychotherapeutic drugs ( e.g. SSRIs ), therefore people with mental disorders can manage their condition effectively, return to work and contribute to the economy

Answer 173

-provides a way of determining which hypothesis should be accepted and which should be rejected ( alternative or null ) by finding out whether differences or relationships between variables are significant ( meaningful ) or are likely to have occurred by chance

Answer 174

-a calculation of the likelihood that a certain event will occur

Answer 175

-0.05 ( 5% ) -in some circumstances, researchers need to be even more confident that findings were not due to chance ( e.g. when there is a risk attached like a human cost ) and so employ a stricter significance level such as 0.01 ( 1% )

Answer 176

-a statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items ( e.g. the same participant tested twice )

Answer 177

-looking for a difference rather than an association ( i.e. an experiment rather than a correlation ) -repeated measures design -nominal ( categorical ) data

Answer 178

-convert the data to nominal data if it is not already organised into categories -work out the difference between the two sets of data, including the signs ( +, - or 0 )

Answer 179

-add up the total number of pluses and minuses -disregard any participants who achieved the same score in both conditions

Answer 180

-the S value is the total number of the less frequent sign -the N value is the number of participants in the data set, excluding the ones whose score stayed the same -decide if the hypothesis is one-tailed ( directional ) or two-tailed ( non-directional )

Answer 181

-compare the calculated value ( i.e. S ) with the critical value found in a table of critical values -if S ≤ C ( less than or equal to ), the difference is significant at the 0.05 level, so the alternative hypothesis ( directional or non-directional ) is accepted and the null is rejected -if S > C ( more than ), the difference is not significant at the 0.05 level, so the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative is rejected

Research methods Flashcards

(205 cards)