Approches in psychology (Paper 2) Flashcards

Question

What is Operant conditioning? | Page 106 ## Footnote (Also who came up with it?)

Answer 1

Operant conditioning - Skinner's research BF Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an **active process** whereby humans and animals **operate on their environment**. In operant conditioning there are **3 types of consequences of behaviour**: * Positive reinforcement * Negative reinforcement * Punishment **Positive and negative** reinforcement **increase** the likelihood that **behaviour will be repeated**. **Punishment decreases** the likelihood that **behaviour will be repeated**. | A01

Answer 2

* **Positive reinforcement** is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed; e.g, praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class. * **Negative reinforcement** * Occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant. E.g, When a student hands in an essay so as not to be told off, the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement. * Similarly, a rat may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever leads to avoidance of an electric shock. * **Punishment** is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, for example being shouted at by the teacher for talking during a lesson. (Finding a way to avoid that would be negative reinforcement.) | A01

Answer 3

Skinner conducted experiments with rats, and sometimes pigeons, in specially designed cages called **Skinner Boxes**. Every time the **rat activated a lever** (or in the case of a **pigeon - pecked a disc**) within the box it was **rewarded** with a food pellet. **From then on the animal would continue to perform the behaviour**. Skinner also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an **unpleasant stimulus**, e.g an **electric shock**. | A02

Answer 4

Able to bring the language and methods of the natural sciences into psychology by focusing on observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By emphasising the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status. | A03

Answer 5

In institutions, (prisons and psychiatric wards). Rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges has come from classical conditioning research. Or how classical conditioning has been applied to the treatment of phobias (p. 144). Which has the advantage of requiring less effort from a patient because the patient doesn't have to think about their problem (e.g 'talking therapies"). (such therapies are also suitable for patients who lack insight.) | A03

Answer 6

From a behaviourist perspective, animals (including humans) are seen as machine-like responders to the environment, with little to no conscious insight into their behaviour. These processes, which mediate between stimulus and response, suggest that people may play a much more active role in their own learning. This means that learning theory may apply less to humans than towards animal behaviour. | A03 ## Footnote Other approaches in psychology, such as the social learning theory and the cognitive approach, have emphasised the importance of mental events during learning.

Answer 7

The behaviourist approach: sees all **behaviour** as **determined by past experiences** that have been conditioned. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. (positive, negative, punishment..) **This ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour** He saw **free will as simply an illusion**. When something happens we impose a sense of having made the decision but, our history of past conditioning determined the outcome. | A03

Answer 8

Although The Skinner Box maintained a high degree of control over their experimental 'subjects', the conduct was critised as the animals involved were exposed to stressful conditions, which may also have affected how they reacted to the experimental situation. | A03

Answer 9

Social learning theory - A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors. | edit

Answer 10

Copying the behaviour of others. | A01

Answer 11

When someone associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them. | A01

Answer 12

From the observer's perspective (the one that wants to be like the role model) : Modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model's perspective: precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated (copied) by the observer. | A01

Answer 13

Not directly experienced but occurs when observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. | A01 ## Footnote (A key factor in imitation)

Answer 14

cognitive factors, (such as thought processes, i.e thinking), that influence learning. These processes occur between the stimulus and the response. | A01

Answer 15

Albert Bandura agreed with the behaviourists idea that we learn from what happens around us. But he also said we learn by watching (observing) other people and copying (imitating) what they do- within a social context (i.e social learning). So, we don’t just learn from our own experiences, but also from seeing others actions and following it. | A01 ## Footnote SLT suggested that learning occurs directly, through classical (associate things with certain feelings) and operant conditioning (learn by getting rewards or punishments for our actions ) , but also indirectly (learn by watching others)

Answer 16

Indirect learning takes place (a person watches others and sees what they do). The person might copy the behavior (imitation), but usually only if they see that the person is being rewarded (not punished) for it. This is called **vicarious reinforcement.** Thus, the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly observes the consequences of a behaviour. | A01

Answer 17

SLT is often described as the '**bridge'** between **traditional learning theory** (Page 106-107) and **the cognitive approach** (Page 109). Because it focuses on how cognitive (mental) factors are involved in learning. ..................... These mental factors mediate (i.e intervene) in the learning process to decide if we’ll learn a new behavior. **Four mental or mediational processes in learning were identified by Bandura**: 1. **Attention** - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours. 2. **Retention** - how well the behaviour is remembered. 3. **Motor reproduction** - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour. 4. **Motivation** - the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished. (The first two of these relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two to the performance of behaviour.) | A01 ## Footnote (Unlike traditional behaviourism,) the learning and performance of behaviour need not occur together. Observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.

Answer 18

People (especially children) are much more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify with, called role models. This process is called modelling. A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status. Role models don’t have to be physically around us, which is important because it shows us how the media can influence our behavior. | A01 ## Footnote e.g copying some traits of StrayKids Capu.

Answer 19

**Classical and operant conditioning alone don’t fully explain how we learn**. Humans (and some animals) can observe others and store information about their behavior, making their own judgements about whether it is appropriate to perform these certain actions. **As Bandura observed: Learning would be very slow and risky if people only learned from their own actions. By watching others, we learn how new behaviors are done, and later, this stored knowledge helps guide our actions.** As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning, by **recognizing the role of mediational processes** (the mental steps we go through when observing and deciding what to do). | A03 ## Footnote 'Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. From observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide to action' (Bandura 1977).

Answer 20

Many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of young children's behaviour in lab settings. **Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived (artificial) nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics**. It has been suggested, in relation to the Bobo doll research that, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, **the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected**. Thus the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life. | A03

Answer 21

Bandura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning. One consistent finding in the Bobo doll experiments was that boys were often more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics of the experimental situation. This may be explained by hormonal factors, such as differences in levels of testosterone, a hormone that is present in greater quantities in boys than girls and which is linked to increased aggressive behaviour. This important influence on behaviour is not accounted for in SLT. | A03

Answer 22

* SLT explains how children learn behaviours by observing others, including family, peers, and media, making it useful for explaining cultural variation in behaviour. * This helps explain how cultural norms, including gender roles, are passed through generations. * Cross-cultural studies show gender-role behaviours vary widely across societies – e.g., some parts of Indonesia recognise more than two genders. * This challenges the Western binary view of 'masculinity' and 'femininity'. * The **biological approach cannot easily explain these differences since biology is universal**, whereas social learning is culture-specific. * Therefore, **SLT is more effective in explaining non-universal gender norms** through processes like observation, imitation, and identification. | A03

Answer 23

Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism, in the sense that we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but **we also exert an influence upon it**, through the behaviours we choose to perform. This element of choice suggests that there is some free will in the way we behave. Skinner and the behaviourists rejected the notion of free will claiming instead that all behaviour is controlled by external forces within the environment. The social learning theory position on this is less determinist partly because of the emphasis Bandura placed on **mediational processes** in learning. These allow us to store, plan and make judgements about when to produce particular behaviours that we have observed. Thus, **Bandura drew a distinction between the learning of behaviour and the performance of it**, the implication being that we play a much more active role in our own learning than behaviourism would suggest. | A03

Answer 24

**(Study A)** Bandura et al. (1961) recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. When these children were later observed playing with various toys, including a Bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult. **(Study B)** Bandura and Walters (1963) showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards the Bobo doll. **One group** of children saw the adult praised for their behaviour, being told 'Well done'. A **second group** saw the adult punished for their aggression towards the doll, by being told off. The **third group (The control group)** saw aggression without any consequence. | A02 ## Footnote **Question**: Which aspect of SLT does study A illustrate?

Answer 25

How our mental processes (e.g. thoughts and perceptions) affect behaviour | A01

Answer 26

**'cognitive functions' that** occur within the mind, which are not directly observable but **influence behavior and understanding**. Such as perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. These involve the processing and structuring of information, creating a one-way flow from the stimulus (external event) to the response (behavior/action). | A01

Answer 27

A schema is **a mental structure that organizes knowledge and expectations about the world**. It’s built from past experiences and helps us quickly process new information by relating it to what we already know. | A01 ## Footnote If you have a "school schema," you expect classrooms, teachers, and lessons—this helps you quickly understand what to expect when you enter a school setting. Or if you have a "restaurant schema," you expect certain things when you go to a restaurant, like ordering food, eating, and paying the bill—this schema helps you navigate that experience without having to think about every little detail.

Answer 28

Inference is the process of drawing conclusions about how our mind works (our mental processes) by cognitive psychologists looking at how we behave. In other words, cognitive psychologists figure out what’s happening inside our minds by studying what we do on the outside | A01 ## Footnote Book's definition: The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.

Answer 29

The study of how the brain's biological structures and functions are connected to mental processes like thinking, memory, and perception. | A01 ## Footnote Example of cognitive neuroscience: Researchers studying memory might use brain imaging techniques, like fMRI, to observe which areas of the brain are active when someone is trying to remember a list of words. This helps them understand how specific brain regions, such as the hippocampus, are involved in the process of recalling information.

Answer 30

The cognitive approach, unlike the behaviorist approach, **argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.** This has led cognitive psychologists to explore areas of human behavior, such as **memory, perception, and thinking**, that behaviorists overlooked. These mental processes cannot be directly observed, so **cognitive psychologists study them indirectly, making inferences** for what is going on inside people's minds, **based on their observable behavior**. | A01

Answer 31

Cognitive psychologists use theoretical models and computer models to better understand how our internal mental processes work. **(While these two models often overlap, the key difference is that theoretical models are abstract ideas, whereas computer models are actual, tangible systems. see below for a full explanation)** One important theoretical model is the information processing approach, which suggests that information moves through the **cognitive system in stages: input, storage, and retrieval**. This is similar to the multi-store model of memory (page 48). The information processing approach is inspired by how computers work. However, computer models go a step further by programming an actual computer to simulate human thinking. **If the computer’s output is similar to human behavior, it suggests that the same mental processes might be happening in the human mind**. These computational models have been especially **useful in developing technologies like AI** | A01 ## Footnote Understanding the difference (+ a summary): * Theoretical model: A flowchart that shows how memory might work (input -> storage -> retrieval). Its a conceptual model, not something you can physically interact with. * Computer model: A computer program that simulates how memory works based on that theory. You can run the program, see how it behaves, and test it in real time. So the difference lies in the real-world application: Theoretical models are abstract concepts, while computer models are tangible, working systems that bring those concepts to life in a testable form.

Answer 32

Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as **sucking and grasping**. E.g, the grasping schema consists of moving a hand towards an object and shaping the hand around the object in co-ordination with visual input. As we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated. Adults have developed mental representations for nearly everything from the concept of psychology to a schema for what happens in a restaurant or what a typical zombie looks like. **Schema enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.** (However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors.) | A01 ## Footnote (e.g in Squid game the shooters aren't wearing red- they are wearing Pink, but we see them as evil and dangerous so we thought they must be wearing red :0, another example would be EWT, thinking that a criminal must be wearing dark clothing so maybe susses less a person wearing white.)

Answer 33

* **Cognitive neuroscience** explores how brain structures affect mental processes. * It originated in the **1860s with Paul Broca**, who linked speech impairment to damage in a specific area of the frontal lobe (now Broca’s Area). * Modern **brain imaging technologies** like **fMRI** and **PET scans** have advanced the field significantly. Tulving et al.: found **episodic and semantic memory** are in **different sides of the prefrontal cortex**. * Braver et al. (1997): linked the **central executive** of working memory to **activity in the prefrontal cortex**. Applications: **Mental disorders**: e.g., **OCD** linked to dysfunction in the **parahippocampal gyrus** (emotional processing). **Brain fingerprinting**: a method using brain wave patterns to detect lies or verify memories—may have **future use in legal settings** (e.g., eyewitness testimony). | A01

Answer 34

The cognitive approach is praised for its use of highly controlled and precise research methods, which allow researchers to make reliable inferences about cognitive processes. Lab experiments, in particular, provide objective and replicable data. | A03 ## Footnote Additionally, the rise of cognitive neuroscience has bridged biology and cognitive psychology, giving the study of the mind a more credible and solid scientific foundation.

Answer 35

While the human mind and computers share similarities (e.g., inputs, outputs, storage, and central processing), the computer analogy has faced criticism. It is often seen as **overly reductionist**, as it **overlooks the impact of human emotions** and **motivations** on cognitive processes and therefore how it may affect our ability to process information. For instance, **research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors**, which the computer model fails to account for. | A03

Answer 36

cognitive psychologists are **only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in their research**. As a consequence, cognitive psychology can seem **too abstract and theoretical**. Additionally, many experimental studies use **artificial stimuli** (e.g., word lists in memory tests) that don't reflect every day, real-life, memory experiments. As a result, cognitive research may **lack external validity** and be less applicable to everyday situations. | A03

Answer 37

*The cognitive approach has been widely applied to both theoretical and practical areas.* * It has played a key role in the development of artificial intelligence (**AI**), contributing to the creation of 'thinking machines' and robots that *could transform various industries in the future*. (Machines like IBM's Watson can understand and respond to human language, and thus operate as an almost human 'super-brain', processing enormous quantities of data in a split-second.) * In **mental health**, cognitive psychology has informed treatments for disorders like depression, focusing on how *negative schemas* distort perceptions of events and the world, with therapy aimed at challenging and reshaping these beliefs. * In the field of **eyewitness testimony** (EWT), cognitive research (e.g., studies by Elizabeth Loftus) has shown how easily memory can be distorted, particularly by *suggestive questioning* techniques used by police. For example, using words like "smashed" instead of "collided" can affect how witnesses recall an event. | A03

Answer 38

The cognitive approach is based on soft determinism, which suggests that while our cognitive processes operate within the limits of what we know, we still have the freedom to think and choose how to respond to stimuli. This provides a more balanced, interactionist view compared to the hard determinism of other approaches, such as behaviorism, which argues that free will is an illusion. The cognitive approach acknowledges that while **factors influencing our thoughts and behavior exist meaning that complete free will is also unlikely, we still have some degree of free choice, but only within the limits of our knowledge and experience**. | A03

Answer 39

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body,( e.g genetics, hormonal systems, ect) on behavior, cognition, and emotions. It emphasizes the role of biological factors in shaping mental (e.g thinking) and physical processes (e.g movement). | A01

Answer 40

**Segments of DNA that make up chromosomes which codes the physical features of an organism** (such as eye color and height) **and psychological traits** (such as intelligence and susceptibility to mental disorders). **Genes are inherited from parents to offspring.** | A01 ## Footnote plays a key role in determining an organism’s characteristics and behaviors.

Answer 41

The arrangement or organization of components (such as cells, tissues, or organs) that form an organ, system or living thing. | A01 ## Footnote refers to how various parts are structured and connected to perform specific functions within the body.

Answer 42

**The study of chemicals in the brain**, such as neurotransmitters and hormones, **that regulate and influence psychological functions**, including mood, behavior, cognition, and emotions. | A01

Answer 43

The unique set of genes inherited from both parents which will determine the hereditary traits (e.g eye colour, blood type) and biological characteristics of a person (e.g blood pressure, their metabolism rate). | A01 ## Footnote though not all will be expressed in the phenotype (The observable physical and psychological traits of an individual e.g intellligence or one/both of the parents eye colours)

Answer 44

The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment. The observable physical and psychological traits of an individual, such as eye color, height, and behavior. These traits result from the interaction between an individual's genotype (genetic makeup) and environmental influences. | A01 ## Footnote Book's definition: The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.

Answer 45

The gradual change in inherited characteristics of a biological population over successive generations, driven by processes such as natural selection, genetic mutation, ect. These changes can lead to the development of new species or the adaptation of existing species to their environment. | A01 ## Footnote Book's Definition: The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.

Answer 46

The biological approach argues that all psychological phenomena have a biological basis. To understand human behaviour, we must examine biological structures and processes, such as genes, neurochemistry, and the nervous system. It suggests that the mind resides in the brain, meaning all thoughts, feelings, and behaviours ultimately have a physical origin. This contrasts with the cognitive approach, which views mental processes as separate from the physical brain. | A01

Answer 47

Behavioural geneticists study whether traits like intelligence, personality, and mental disorders, ect - are inherited like physical characteristics are (e.g., height, eye colour). Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the **concordance rates** between pairs of twins; (**the extent to which both twins share the same characteristic**). If MZ twins (who share 100% of their genes) have higher concordance rates for traits like musical ability or schizophrenia than DZ twins (who share 50% of their genes), this **suggests a genetic basis**. | A01

Answer 48

A person's genotype is their actual genetic make-up, while the phenotype is how those genes are expressed through physical, behavioural, and psychological traits. Environmental factors will inevitably influence the expression of the genotype. For example, identical adult twins usually look or behave differently due to lifestyle choices, like exercise or hair dye, despite sharing the same genes. This highlights the interaction between nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) in shaping behaviour, as seen in cases like PKU ( where phenotype can be affected by environment). | A01 ## Footnote Phenylketonuria **(PKU)** is a rare genetic disorder that can be detected in babies using a heel prick test. If left unchecked, PKU causes severe learning difficulties in those who carry the genotype. If detected early enough, however, the child can be placed on a restricted diet and will develop normally without any complications. **(A02)**

Answer 49

The **theory of natural selection**, proposed by Charles Darwin in the 19th centuary, explains how evolution occurs. It suggests that genetically determined behaviours which enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations. This process is similar to how farmers selectively breed animals with desirable traits: E.g, if a cow produces a high milk yield, the **farmer will breed that cow so his stock of cows become progressively better milk producers**. In nature, this "selection" happens naturally (not decided by no one), where advantageous traits increase an individual's chance of survival and reproduction. If the individual survives but does not reproduce, the traits do not remain in the gene pool as it cannot then be passed on. | A01

Answer 50

The Biological approach **uses a range of highly precise scientific methods of investigation**: In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour. These include scanning techniques, such as **fMRIs** and **EEGs**, family and **twin studies**, and **drug trials**. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure biological and neural processes in ways that are **not open to bias**. **This means that the biological approach is based on reliable data.** | A03

Answer 51

Increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of **psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental illnesses, such as depression.** ( not effective for all patients, but have revolutionised treatment for many.) This is a **strength** of the biological approach because it means that **sufferers are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life**, rather than remain in hospital. | A03

Answer 52

*The biological approach offers explanations for mental illness in terms of the action of neurotransmitters in the brain*. The evidence for this relationship comes from studies that show **a particular drug reduces symptoms of a mental disorder and thus it is assumed that the neurochemical in the brain causes the disorder**. **This is a bit like assuming that the cause of a headache is lack of paracetamol** just because taking paracetamol is effective in relieving symptoms of a headache. Discovering an **association between two factors does not mean that one is a cause**. This is a **limitation** because the biological approach is **claiming to have discovered causes where only an association exists**. | A03

Answer 53

The biological approach to behavior suggests that actions are governed by internal, biological factors beyond our control. This raises challenges for the legal system, where offenders are typically held responsible for their actions. If a "criminal gene" were discovered, it could complicate this principle, as defendants might claim their behavior is biologically predetermined. For example, in 1991, Stephen Mobley used a defense based on his family's history of behavioral disorders, arguing his actions were genetically driven. He lost the case, but the debate persists: if a criminal gene were found, should individuals with it be judged more leniently or harshly by society? | A03 ## Footnote Listen to the podcast on genetics and crime: Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsAngrBEIZs part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=87mMON5tZF8

Answer 54

* The biological approach suggests that genetic similarities between twins/family members explain behavioral similarities. * However, shared environments complicate separating genetics (nature) from environment (nurture). * Example: Dizygotic (DZ) twins share 50% of their genes and often show higher concordance rates than siblings. This points to environmental influences, not just genetics. * Monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% of their genes, but high concordance rates may be due to similar treatment by parents or social influence. * **To isolate genetic influence, twins would need to be raised apart (unethical and rare)**. Challenges to Twin Studies: * Environmental factors make it difficult to claim that behavioral similarities are purely genetic. * Past research by **Cyril Burt and Arthur Jensen misused genetic data to argue that certain racial groups were intellectually inferior, reinforcing harmful stereotypes**. Implications: * Overemphasizing genetics can perpetuate dangerous ideas like racism and justify discriminatory practices like eugenics. | A03 ## Footnote For further exploration, listen to John Barrowman’s "The Making of Me," which explores nature and nurture in relation to homosexuality. (But I think this is taken down now?)

Answer 55

different dynamics, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience. | A01

Answer 56

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour. | A01

Answer 57

Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification. | A01

Answer 58

The 'reality check' that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.

Answer 59

The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be. | A01

Answer 60

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego. | A01

Answer 61

Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development. | A01 ## Footnote Each stage (apart from latency) is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage. Any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes 'stuck' and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through to adult life.

Answer 62

1. 0-1 years 2. Focus of pleasure is the mouth, mothers' breast is the object of desire. 3. Oral fixation – smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical. | A01

Answer 63

* 1-3 years * Focus of pleasure is the anus. The child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces. * Anal retentive – perfectionists, obsessive. Anal expulsive – messy, thoughtless. | A01

Answer 64

* 3-5 years * Focus of pleasure is the genital area, child experiences the Oedipus/ Electra complex. * Phallic personality – narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual. | A01

Answer 65

* 6-12 years * Earlier conflicts are repressed | A01

Answer 66

* 12 years+ * Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. * Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships. | A01

Answer 67

Our conscious mind is just the ‘tip of the iceberg’ - most of our mind is made up of the unconscious: a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour and emotions. The unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, locked away or forgotten. These can be accessed through the ‘pre-conscious’ (thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but can be accessed if desired) during dreams or through ‘slips of the tongue’ (Freudian slips, aka parapraxes). e.g saying Mum instead of Miss to a teacher. | A01

Answer 68

1. Id 2. Ego 3. Superego | A01

Answer 69

The primitive part of our personality – operating on the pleasure principle. The id is out to get what it desires. It is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts (only the **Id is present at birth**). Throughout life the id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs. | A01

Answer 70

The ego works on the reality principle – the mediator between the id and superego. The ego **develops at the age of around 2 years old** and its role is to **reduce conflicts between the demands of the id and superego**. It does this by **using several defence mechanisms**. | A01

Answer 71

The Superego is **formed at the end of the phallic stage**, **around 5 years of age**. It is our internalized sense of right and wrong. Based on the morality principle, it **represents the moral standards of the child’s same sex parent** and punishes the ego for wrongdoing. | A01

Answer 72

**Repression** – forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind. **Denial** – Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of personality/reality. **Displacement** – Transferring feelings from the true source of a distressing emotion onto a substitute target. | A01

Answer 73

Freud’s theory has had a significant influence on psychology and the western way of thinking about the world today, particularly in regard to human behaviour and relationships. Along with behaviourism, Freud’s work was a key force for the first half of the 20th century. It has been **used to explain a wide range of phenomenens including; abnormal behaviour (e.g., OCD), development of bad habits, development of personality, gender identity and moral identity. The Psychodynamic approach also focuses on the connection between childhood experiences and adult life**. | A03

Answer 74

Hans was a five-year-old boy who developed a phobia of horses – Freud suggested that Hans’ phobia was a form of displacement in which he repressed his fear of his father and transferred it to horses. Thus, horses were merely a symbolic representation of Hans’ real unconscious fear, the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex. There are problems with case studies – they’re non-falsifiable and are not representative. | A02/A03

Answer 75

* Critics say, even though the details where carefully recorded, it is **not possible to make such universal claim on a study with such a small number of individuals** who were also **psychologically abnormal**. * Furthermore, Freud' interpretations were **highly subjective**; it's unlikely, e.g Little Hans for instance, that any other researcher would have drawn the same conclusions. * In comparison with other approaches, **Freud's methods lack scientific rigour**. | A03

Answer 76

Karl Popper argued concepts such as the Id and the Oedipus complex which since said to occur at an unconscious level, can't be directly observed or tested. This makes them non-falsifiable and so the approach may be considered less scientific. | A03 ## Footnote According to Popper this affords psychodynamic theory the status of pseudoscience ('fake' science) rather than real science.

Answer 77

* Psychoanalysis has been used to treat disorders such as anxiety and depression. Psychoanalysis is based upon the idea that unconscious issues are the root cause of our abnormalities. The aim is therefore to make the unconscious conscious so that people can face their issues, in a safe environment, and move on. * Employing a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious, such as hypnosis and dream analysis, psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-day psychotherapies that have since been established. and many Freudian therapists have claimed success with many patients suffering from mild neuroses. | A03

Answer 78

* It can take years to complete, it's expensive and it is not available on the NHS. * Techniques involve dream analysis, which is a problem as people only remember around 5% of their dreams. * The therapy can be traumatic as it uses free association (talking freely without interruption), and so people may drop out of the treatment early when they can't resolve the problems that have been dug up. * May also involve false memories. * Psychoanalysis has been criticised as inappropriate, even harmful, for people suffering some serious mental disorders - such as schizophrenia. | A03

Answer 79

They summarized 2,500 studies on psychoanalysis and concluded that experimental studies on psychoanalysis compare well with other studies to any other major area of psychology. This suggests that psychoanalysis is an effect and suitable treatment for disorders such as depression and anxiety. | A03

Answer 80

Argues that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people in non- Western cultures. E.g, in China individuals generally avoid thoughts that cause them distress, rather than being able to talk openly about them. This contrasts with the Western belief that open discussion and insights are always helpful in therapy. | A03

Answer 81

* definition: A psychological phenomenon where boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father (their rival in love). * Key Point: Boys repress their feelings for their mother due to fear of castration and identify with their father, adopting his gender role and moral values. * subject: Little Hans, a 5-year-old boy. Problem: Hans developed a phobia of horses after witnessing one collapse in the street. * Freud's Explanation: Hans fear of horses was a form of displacement, where his unconscious fear of his father (connected to the Oedipus complex) was transferred to horses as a symbolic representation.Conclusion: The fear of castration was the root cause of Hans' phobia, supporting Freud's Oedipus complex theory. | A02 ## Footnote definition: Freud's theory for girls, where they desire their father (as the penis is the primary love object) and develop resentment towards their mother. Key Point: Over time, girls abandon the desire for their father and instead develop a desire for a baby, identifying with their mother in the process.

Answer 82

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of individual experiences. It focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of humans. | A01

Answer 83

The ability of individuals to make choices that are not determined by external forces, instincts, or past experiences. It is the concept that people have control over their own actions and decisions. | A01

Answer 84

It is the desire to become the best version of oneself. The process of realizing and fulfilling one’s potential, capabilities, and personal growth. | A01

Answer 85

A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved. | A01

Answer 86

The individual's sense of who they are, including their thoughts, feelings, identity, and experiences. It encompasses both the conscious and unconscious aspects of a person. | A01

Answer 87

Congruence refers to the **alignment or harmony** between a person's self-concept (how they view themselves) and their ideal self (how they would like to be). It is a key goal in Rogerian therapy, where the therapist helps the individual achieve a more accurate and authentic sense of self, reducing the inconsistencies **between the real self and ideal self**. | A01

Answer 88

The expectations or standards set by others (such as parents, society, or authority figures) that a person must meet in order to receive love, acceptance, or approval. | A01 ## Footnote e.g a parent saying to a child, I will only love you if...you study medicine' or 'if you split up with that boy'.

Answer 89

Humanistic psychology claims that individuals are self-determining and possess free will. **While external and internal factors influence us, we are active agents capable of shaping our own development.** Psychologists like Rogers and Maslow reject scientific models that use general laws to explain behavior, arguing that human beings are unique and psychology should focus on subjective experiences rather than general principles. **This approach is known as the person-centred approach**. | A01

Answer 90

Self-actualisation is the innate tendency of every person to reach their full potential and become the best version of themselves. It is the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. To achieve self-actualisation, all four lower levels (deficiency needs) must be met first. Humanistic psychology sees personal growth as a vital part of being human, involving gaining knowledge, establishing morals, and learning from mistakes. However, psychological barriers may prevent some individuals from reaching their full potential. | A01

Answer 91

Rogers believed that for personal growth, an individual’s self-concept must align with their ideal self (congruence). If there is a large gap between the two, the person experiences incongruence, leading to negative feelings of self-worth and preventing self-actualisation. Rogers also argued that many adult issues, like low self-esteem, can stem from childhood, especially when parents place conditions on their love (conditions of worth). For example, "I will love you if you do well at school." Unconditional love from parents is essential for healthy development. | A01

Answer 92

Rogers developed a client-centred therapy to help people cope with everyday problems by reducing the gap between their self-concept and ideal self. He believed that many adult issues, such as low self-esteem, are due from receiving a lack of unconditional positive regard (unconditional love) from parents during childhood. Parents who set conditions on their love (conditions of worth) create future psychological problems for their child. Rogers therefore saw it as his job, as a therapist, to provide clients with the unconditional positive regard that they lacked in childhood. | A01

Answer 93

Wood, water, warmth, rest | A01 ## Footnote This is basic needs

Answer 94

security/safety | A01 ## Footnote This is basic needs

Answer 95

intimate relations/ friends | A01 ## Footnote Psychological needs

Answer 96

feeling of accomplishment | A01 ## Footnote Psychological need

Answer 97

achieving ones full potential | A01 ## Footnote Self-fulfiment need

Answer 98

1. Physiological needs - Wood, water, warmth, rest (This is basic needs) 2. Safety needs - security/safety (This is basic needs) 3. Belongingness and love needs - Intimate relations/ friends (Psychological needs) 4. Esteem needs - feeling of accomplishment (Psychological need) 5. Self-actualisation - achieving ones full potential (Self-fulfiment need) | A01

Answer 99

It is not reductionist, AKA The humanistic approach does not reduce human behaviour down to simple explanations, and instead takes on a **holistic approach** - looking at the person as a whole when studying behaviour, while still taking in all the factors that may influence someone's behaviour. This is a positive thing, as factors influencing behaviour also aren't overlooked. | A03 ## Footnote Unlike E.g: * Behaviourists who explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections; * The Psychodynamic Approach: a conflict between three things: id, ego and superego; * biological psychologists who reduce behaviour to its basic physiological processes, * and supporters of the cognitive approach see human beings as little more than information processing 'machines'.

Answer 100

**Rogers' client-centred therapy** encourages clients to discover their own solutions to problems they're facing in safe, supportive, warm and non-judgmental environments. Rogers believed that an effective therapist should provide their clients with three key things: * empathy, * genuineness and * unconditional positive regard (that they may not have received in childhood). These factors help a client to feel more positive and therefore function better as they **feel more supported and empowered by the therapist, closing the gap between self concept and the ideal self**. | A03

Answer 101

Because it is a Positive approach, Humanistic psychologists have been praised for 'bringing the person back into psychology' and promoting a positive image of the human condition. E.g (psychodynamic approach) Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between 'common unhappiness and absolute despair'. Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative; it sees all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives. | A03

Answer 102

**Harter et al**. (1996) found that teenagers who feel they must meet certain conditions to gain their parents' approval often struggle with self-esteem. **Adolescents who create a "false self" to please their parents are more likely to develop depression and lose touch with their true self.** Their findings support the **importance of unconditional love in childhood and show how conditions of worth can lead to depressive disorders**. | A03

Answer 103

Nevis (1983) - carried out a study in China and found that self-actualisation was defined in terms of contribution to the community, rather than in terms of individual development. This suggests that the concept of self-actualisation is not a universal explanation of human behaviour and growth. | A03

Answer 104

Humanistic psychology includes abstract concepts like 'self-actualisation' and 'congruence,' which are difficult to test under experimental conditions. While useful in therapy, these concepts lack empirical evidence, making it challenging to falsify (prove wrong), therefore also making the approach less scientific. Rogers attempted to introduce more precision with the 'Q-sort', an objective measure of progress in therapy, but nevertheless, as would be expected of an approach that describes itself as anti-scientific, its lack of testable concepts remains a critique of the approach. | A03 ## Footnote Objective: Not influenced by the therapist's personal opinions/beliefs or emotions

Answer 105

Humanistic psychology, which focuses on individual freedom, autonomy, and personal growth, is more aligned with individualist cultures (like those in the West, e.g., the US). In contrast, collectivist cultures (e.g., India) emphasize group needs and interdependence, making humanistic psychology's concepts less relevant. This suggests that the approach may not provide a universal explanation of behavior and could be limited by the cultural context in which it was developed. | A03

Answer 106

* Psychodynamic Approach: Freud's theory links development to specific psychosexual stages tied to age, with little development beyond the genital stage in adolescence. * Cognitive Approach: Focuses on how children form increasingly complex concepts (schemas) as they grow older, contributing to intellectual development. * Biological Approach: Emphasizes maturation, where genetically determined physiological changes influence psychological and behavioral characteristics. * Humanistic Approach: Views the development of the self as ongoing throughout life, with the parent-child relationship being crucial for psychological health. * Behaviorist & Social Learning Theory: Do not offer stage theories but view learning as continuous, occurring at any age. | A01/A03

Answer 107

* **Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory: Emphasize nurture**, suggesting behavior is learned through associations, reinforcement, observation, and imitation, with babies seen as 'blank slates' at birth. * **Biological Approach: Emphasizes nature**, arguing that behavior is determined by genetic inheritance and that anatomy shapes destiny. * Freud (**Psychodynamic Approach**): Believes both **nature and nurture** play roles, with biological drives influencing behavior but also stressing the importance of relationships with parents. * **Humanistic Approach**: Focuses on **nurture**, seeing relationships with parents, friends, and society as critical for shaping self-concept. * **Cognitive Approach**: Acknowledges both **nature and nurture**, recognizing that some information processing abilities and schemas are innate but constantly refined through experience. | A01/A03

Answer 108

* **Behaviorism: Reductionist**, focusing on stimulus-response units for lab testing. * **Biological Approach: Reductionist**, explaining behavior at the genetic or neural level. * **Psychodynamic Approach: Reductionist**, with behavior largely explained by sexual drives and biological instincts, though Freud's dynamic interaction of personality elements (Id, Ego, Super Ego) adds **some holistic elements**. * **Cognitive Approach**: Accused of **machine reductionism**, treating people as information-processing systems and ignoring emotional influence. * **Social Learning Theory: Reductionist**, focusing on key processes like imitation and modeling, but considers cognitive factors. * **Humanistic Psychology: Holistic**, considering all aspects of an individual, including their interactions with others and society. | A01/A03

Answer 109

* **Behaviorism**: Sees behavior as **environmentally determined** by external influences beyond our control. * **Biological Approach**: Advocates **genetic determinism**, where behavior is driven by innate biological factors. * **Psychodynamic Approach**: Emphasizes **psychic determinism**, where unconscious forces drive behavior, often rationalized by the conscious mind. * **Cognitive Approach**: Suggests we can choose our thoughts and behaviors, but these choices are constrained by our knowledge and experiences (**soft determinism**). * **Social Learning Theory** (Bandura): Proposes **reciprocal determinism**, where we are influenced by our environment, but also exert influence on it through our behavior. * **Humanistic Psychology**: Asserts that humans have **free will**, acting as active agents who determine their own development. | A01/A03

Answer 110

* **Behaviorist Model**: **Explanation**: Abnormality arises from maladaptive or faulty learning, where inappropriate behaviors are reinforced. **Treatment**: Behavior therapies, like systematic desensitization, are effective for treating phobias by addressing specific symptoms. * **Social Learning Theory**: **Explanation**: Abnormal behavior, such as aggression, may be learned through dysfunctional role models. **Treatment**: While less commonly used in treatment, modeling and observational learning principles can help explain behavior acquisition (to learn or acquires a new behavior, skill, or piece of information). * **Psychodynamic Approach** (Freud): **Explanation**: Anxiety disorders stem from unconscious conflicts, childhood trauma, and defense mechanisms. **Treatment**: Psychoanalysis can help, but it requires significant time and emotional effort from the patient and isn't suitable for everyone. | A01/A03

Answer 111

* **Cognitive Therapy**: **Explanation**: Abnormal behavior, like depression, is caused by faulty thinking patterns. **Treatment**: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) aims to identify and correct these faulty thoughts, effectively treating conditions like depression. * **Humanistic Therapy**: **Explanation**: Abnormal behavior results from a gap between self-concept and ideal self. **Treatment**: Therapy focuses on closing this gap to promote personal growth (Rogers' approach). * **Biological Approach**: **Explanation**: Mental disorders are linked to chemical imbalances in the brain. **Treatment**: Drug therapy, which regulates brain chemistry, has revolutionized treatment for mental disorders. | A01/A03

Answer 112

* **Nomothetic Approach**: Focuses on establishing *general laws* by studying large groups of people. Associated with: Behaviorist, Social Learning Theory, Cognitive, and Biological approaches. These approaches often use experimental methods to gather data. * **Idiographic Approach**: Aims to understand the *unique experiences of individuals*. Associated with: Psychodynamic and Humanistic approaches. These favor in-depth qualitative methods such as case studies and unstructured interviews, typically in clinical settings. *Overlap*: The Biological and Cognitive approaches may also use case studies, especially for studying unusual cases like memory deficits (e.g., HM). | A01/A03

Approches in psychology (Paper 2) Flashcards

Combine this deck with the deck below later when you have time (136 cards)