Biopsychology (paper 2)

Question 1

Biopsychology

Nervous system definition:

p. 114

Answer 1

The nervous system is a network of cells and organs that controls and coordinates body functions by transmitting signals between the brain, spinal cord, and other body parts.

It includes the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

A01

Question 2

Biopsychology

Central nervous system (CNS) definition

p. 114

Answer 2

The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord. It acts as the control center of the body, processing information and sending signals to direct actions, thoughts, and feelings, and directs responses to the sensory input.

A01

Book’s definition: Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions.

Question 3

Biopsychology

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) definition:

p. 114

Answer 3

PNS consists of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. which connects the CNS to the rest of the body - including limbs and organs.

PNS carries sensory information to the CNS,
and motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

A01

CNS = central nervous system

Question 4

Biopsychology

Somatic nervous system definition:

p. 114

Answer 4

A part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls voluntary movements.
It transmits sensory information from the body to the brain and sends motor commands from the brain to the muscles.

A01

this allowing conscious control over actions like e.g walking or picking up objects

Question 5

Biopsychology

Autonomic nervous system definition:

p. 114

Answer 5

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

operates automatically, without conscious effort, and is divided into two branches:
* the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for stress or emergency (“fight or flight”)
* the parasympathetic nervous system, which helps the body relax and conserve energy (“rest and digest”).

A01

Question 6

Biopsychology

What Are the structure and functions of the Nervous System?

p. 114

name the 2 sub-systems

Answer 6

The nervous system is a specialised network of cells in the human body and is our primary internal communication system. It has two main functions:
* To collect, process and respond to information in the environment.
* To co-ordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body.

It is divided into two sub-systems:
* Central nervous system (CNS)
* Peripheral nervous system (PNS).

A01

Question 7

Biopsychology

What is the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Its Functions?

p. 114

Answer 7

The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
* The brain’s outer layer, the cerebral cortex, is highly developed in humans and is what distinguishes our higher mental functions from those of animals.

The brain is divided into two hemispheres.

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It is responsible for reflex actions such as pulling your hand away from a hot plate.
It passes messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS.

Question 8

Biopsychology

What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and Its Functions?

p. 114

Answer 8

The PNS transmits messages, via millions of neurons (nerve cells), to and from the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is further sub-divided into the:
* Autonomic nervous system (ANS) governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses.
* Somatic nervous system (SNS) controls muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors.

Question 9

Biopsychology

Name the major sub-divisions of the human nervous system.

p. 114

Answer 9

Human Nervous System
/\ /\
Peripheral Nervous System (1/2)|Central Nervous System (1/2)
/\ /\ | /\ /\
Autonomic Somatic | Brain (1/4) Spinal Cord (1/4)
Nervous nervous
System (1/4) system (1/4)
/\ /\
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nervous Nervous
System (1/8) System (1/8)

A01

(press edit to see this flashcard properly)

Question 10

Biopsychology

What is the Endocrine System and How Do Glands and Hormones Work?

p. 115

Answer 10

The endocrine system, working alongside the nervous system, helps regulate vital body functions, though it acts more slowly and has broader, lasting effects. Glands like the thyroid produce hormones, which are released into the bloodstream and affect any cell with a corresponding receptor.

Hormones can influence multiple organs and systems. For instance, thyroxine from the thyroid boosts heart rate and accelerates metabolism, impacting growth rates and cellular activity.

The pituitary gland, often called the “master gland” because it controls the release of hormones from other glands, is a key player in regulating this system.

A01

Question 11

Biopsychology

How Do the Endocrine System and ANS Work Together in the Fight or Flight Response?

p. 115

Answer 11

The endocrine system and autonomic nervous system (ANS) work together during the fight or flight response. When a stressor is perceived—like a surprise scare or exam anxiety—the hypothalamus in the brain activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS. This shifts the body from its normal, relaxed state (parasympathetic) to a state of heightened arousal (sympathetic).

The adrenal glands then release adrenaline into the bloodstream, triggering physical changes like an increased heart rate, preparing the body for quick action. This immediate response is automatic and happens as soon as a threat is detected.

Once the threat is over, the parasympathetic system restores the body to its resting state, acting like a “brake” to counteract the effects of the sympathetic system and bring the body back to normal—this is called the “rest and digest” response.

A01

Question 12

Biopsychology

What Did Research Find About the Link Between Stressful Life Events and Illness?

p. 115

Answer 12

Research found a positive correlation between major stressful life events in the previous few months and years, such as getting married, divorce, death of a loved one, etc; and illness. A researcher gave 150 participants a questionnaire asking them to list the number of major life events (from a list of 20) they had experienced in the past three years. This was compared to the number of days off work due to illness over the same period. The results showed that as the number of major life events increased, so did the number of days off work, suggesting a link between stress and physical illness.

A02

Question 13

Biopsychology

Endocrine system definition:

p. 115

Answer 13

One of the body’s major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream.

These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body.

A01

Question 14

Biopsychology

Gland Definition:

p. 115

Answer 14

An organ in the body that creates and releases substances such as hormones, enzymes, or other fluids.

A01

In psychology, glands are important because they play a key role in regulating bodily functions through hormone secretion, which can affect behavior, mood, and physical health. e.g the thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands.

Question 15

Biopsychology

Hormones definition

p. 115

Answer 15

Chemical substances produced by glands that circuate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They help regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, mood, and stress responses. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful.

A01

In psychology, hormones are crucial because they influence emotions, behavior, and mental health. Examples include adrenaline, cortisol, and serotonin.

Question 16

Biopsychology

Fight or flight response definition

p. 115

Answer 16

The fight or flight response is the body’s automatic reaction to a perceived threat or danger. It prepares the body to either confront (fight) or escape (flight) the threat by triggering physiological aroused, such as increased heart rate, rapid breathing, and the release of stress hormones like adrenaline.

This response is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and is designed to help the body react quickly in stressful situations.

A01

Question 17

Biopsychology

Adrenaline definition

p. 115

Answer 17

A hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is key to the body’s immediate stress response. It has a significant impact on the cells in the cardiovascular system, increasing heart rate, narrowing (contracting) blood vessels, and opening (dilating) air passages to help the body respond quickly to stress or danger. This hormone prepares the body for action, supporting the fight or flight response.

A01

Question 18

Biopsychology

Biological changes associated with the Sympathetic state

p. 115

Answer 18

1. Increases heart rate
2. Increases breathing rate
3. Dilates pupils
4. Inhibits digestion
5. Inhibits saliva production
6. Contracts rectum

A01

Question 19

Biopsychology

Biological changes associated with the Parasympathetic state

p. 115

Answer 19

1. Decreases heart rate
2. Decreases breathing rate
3. Constricts pupils
4. Stimulates digestion
5. Stimulates saliva production
6. Relaxes rectum

A01

Question 20

Biopsychology

Neuron definition -

p. 116

Answer 20

A neuron is a nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system, allowing communication between the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the body.

A01

They play a crucial role in processing information and controlling bodily functions, emotions, and behaviors.

Question 21

Biopsychology

Sensory neurons definition-

p. 116

Answer 21

Sensory neurons are nerve cells that carry information from sensory receptors (like those in the skin, eyes, or ears) to the brain and spinal cord. They help us perceive the world around us by transmitting signals about things like touch, sight, sound, and temperature, allowing us to respond to our environment.

A01

book version: These carry messages from the PNS (peripheral nervous system) to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons.

Question 22

Biopsychology

Relay neurons definition-

p. 116

Answer 22

Nerve cells that transmit information between sensory neurons and motor neurons within the brain and spinal cord.

They act as connectors, processing and relaying signals to coordinate responses - enabling your body to react appropriately to the stimuli.

A01

book version: These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.

Question 23

Biopsychology

Motor neurons definition-

p. 116

Answer 23

Nerve cells that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, enabling movement and bodily functions. They are responsible for initiating voluntary actions (like walking) and involuntary ones (like heartbeats or digestion).

A01

Book definition: These connect the CNS (central nervous system) to effectors such as muscles and glands.
They have short dendrites and long axons.

Question 24

Biopsychology

What is the structure and function of neurons?

p. 116

Answer 24

There are 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human nervous system,
80% of which are located in the brain.
By transmitting signals electrically and chemically, these neurons provide the nervous system with its primary means of communication.

A01

Question 25

# Biopsychology recap: Name the 3 types of neurons | p. 116

Answer 25

1. motor neurons 2. sensory neurons 3. relay neurons | A01

Question 26

# Biopsychology Talk me through the structure of a neuron: | 116

Answer 26

Neurons range in size from less than a millimeter to a meter, but all share a similar structure. The cell body (soma) contains the nucleus with the cell’s genetic material. Branch-like dendrites carry nerve impulses toward the soma, while the axon transmits them away. The axon is coated with myelin, a fatty layer that speeds up electrical transmission. Myelin is segmented by gaps called nodes of Ranvier, which allow the impulse to "jump" between them, further speeding up transmission. At the axon’s end, terminal buttons transmit signals across the synapse to the next neuron. | A01

Question 27

# Biopsychology What is an electric transmission? | 116

Answer 27

When a neuron is in a resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside. When a neuron is activated by a stimulus, the inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a split second causing an action potential to occur (an electrical impulse that travels down the axon to the end of the neuron). This creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron. | A01

Question 28

# Biopsychology chemical transmission- synapses | 117

Answer 28

Neurons communicate with each other within groups known as neural networks. Each neuron is separated from the next by a tiny gap called the synapse. 1. Signals within neurons are transmitted electrically; 2. however, signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synapse. When the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron (the presynaptic terminal) it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles. ## Footnote edit

Question 29

# Biopsychology What is a Neurotransmitter? | p. 117

Answer 29

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron in the chain. Once the neurotransmitter crosses the gap, it is taken up by the postsynaptic receptor site - in other words, the dendrites of the next neuron. Here, the chemical message is converted back into an electrical impulse and the process of transmission begins again in this other neuron. Several dozen types of neurotransmitter have been identified in the brain (as well as in the spinal cord and some glands). Each neurotransmitter has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a post-synaptic receptor site, similar to a lock and a key. Neurotransmitters also have specialist functions. For instance, acetylcholine (ACh) is found at each point where a motor neuron meets a muscle, and upon its release, it will cause muscles to contract.

Question 30

# Biopsychology Excitation and inhibition | p. 117

Answer 30

Neurotransmitters have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the neighbouring neuron. For instance, the neurotransmitter serotonin causes inhibition in the receiving neuron, resulting in the neuron becoming more negatively charged and less likely to fire. In contrast, adrenaline (an element of the stress response which is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter) causes excitation of the post-synaptic neuron by increasing its positive charge and making it more likely to fire.

Question 31

# Biopsychology Summation | p. 117

Answer 31

The question of whether a postsynaptic neuron does fire is decided by the process of summation. The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed: if the net effect on the postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire; if the net effect is excitatory it is more likely to fire - and, momentarily, the inside of the postsynaptic neuron becomes positively charged. Once the electrical impulse is created it travels down the neuron. Therefore, the action potential of the postsynaptic neuron is only triggered if the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold.

Question 32

# Biopsychology Synaptic transmission definition: | p. 117

Answer 32

The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the gap (the synapse) that separates them.

Question 33

# Biopsychology Neurotransmitter - | 117

Answer 33

Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Neurotransmitters can be broadly divided into those that perform an excitatory function and those that perform an inhibitory function.

Question 34

# Biopsychology Excitation - | 117

Answer 34

When a neurotransmitter, such as adrenaline, increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse.

Question 35

# Biopsychology Inhibition - | 117

Answer 35

When a neurotransmitter, such as serotonin, increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse.

Question 36

# Biopsychology Summation | 117

Answer 36

The question of whether a postsynaptic neuron does fire is decided by the process of summation: The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed: if the net effect on the postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire; if the net effect is excitatory it is more likely to fire - and, momentarily, the inside of the postsynaptic neuron becomes positively charged. Once the electrical impulse is created it travels down the neuron. Therefore, the action potential of the postsynaptic neuron is only triggered if the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold. | edit