Avian Nutrition Flashcards
(87 cards)
1
Q
What accounts for the cause of up to 75 % of all medical problems in birds?
A
Up to 75% of all medical problem in pet birds have a
nutritional background
2
Q
What would an unbalanced diet in birds lead to?
A
An unbalanced diet in birds would lead to malnutrition,
obesity, impaired immune function, poor reproductive
success and more
3
Q
What can birds be categorized by?
A
Birds can be categorized by their diet
- There are 23 groups of birds according to their diet
There are very many species of birds even within similar
groups- for example 9000 species of psittacine
- Some psittacines feed primarily on high fat nuts (macaws for example)
- Others feed on a much lower fat vegetation (Amazons)
4
Q
What are the groups of vegetarian birds and what do they eat?
A
- Frugivore (eats primarily fruit) - Granivore (eats grains)
- Nectarivore (feeds on flower nectar)
- Palynivores (feed on pollen)
5
Q
What are the groups of carnivorous birds and what do they eat?
A
- Avivorous birds: eat birds
- Carnivorous birds: eat meat
- Insectivorous birds: eat insects
- Molluscivorous: feed on mollusks
- Piscivorous: feed on fish
6
Q
What is the water requirements of birds?
A
Water: Avian water requirements change in different species
- Australian and other desert birds have lower water requirements
- Water requirements are highest in neonates
- Water should be fresh and clean, without supplements
7
Q
What changes in terms of requirements when birds are molting?
A
Molting (replacing feathers) requires specific nutrients, and has higher energy costs
- The energy is needed for the production and maintenance of feather pulps
- It can increase by 3-20% (at peak molt)
8
Q
What changes the amount of saliva during eating? What is the crop?
A
- The amount of saliva differs between species according
to diet (less in fish eating birds, more in birds that eat grain/seed) - The crop is an enlargement of the esophagus, cranial to
the thoracic inlet (not present in gulls, penguins) - The crop can be palpated in a physical exam
- The crop can become impacted with dry food in a
dehydrated bird
9
Q
When does the crop store food? what occurs while the food is within the crop? What are the two main parts of the stomach? What occurs in each?
A
The crop stores food when the gizzard is full
- The food softens and swells with water
- No chemical digestion in the crop/esophagus
- The stomach has two main parts- the proventriculus or the
glandular stomach, and the muscular stomach (gizzard)
- Proventriculus: The glandular cells secrete acid and pepsin
- The gizzard physically grinds the food
10
Q
What occurs in the birds small and large intestines?
A
The small intestines:
- Bile and pancreatic secretions are transported into the distal duodenum and help with digestion of carbohydrate, protein and
fat
Large intestines:
- The large intestines consists of paired caeca and a short straight
intestines
- The caeca are a site of fermentation and lymphatic tissue
- The straight intestine ends in the cloaca, along with the
urogenital tract
11
Q
What can be seen about nutritional status during physical exam of a bird?
A
- Visual inspection can suggest fat deposition
along the pectoral region - Body condition score in birds is best appreciated by assessing the musculature and
fat coverage in the pectoral region - Crop palpation: is important to make sure there is no impaction or stasis of food in the crop.
- Visual inspection of the plumage can also suggest malnutrition. For example, this bird should be bright green and not dark
- The oropharynx should be inspected Most birds would have a choanal slit and choanal papilae
- The overall skin, feet, and feathers may all be indicators of malnutrition
12
Q
What change in weight would indicate / warrant further assessment
A
An acute decrease of 5% bodyweight, or a chronic
decrease of 10% warrant further assessment
13
Q
What is a backyard flock? What are the two rules to remember?
A
Pets, or used for eggs and
meat or a combination
Two rules to remember:
- A chicken will only grow
and perform to the
extent it receives proper
nutrition
- A chicken cannot grow
beyond its maximum
genetic potential
14
Q
Why is nutrition variable between backyard flocks and large scale commercial facilities?
A
- Nutrition for small flocks and backyard poultry tends to be
more variable than nutrition for egg laying hens or meat
birds in a large-scale production setting - Diet can affect the health of the bird or affect productivity
- When animals are used for production, feed is a major
expense of the overall investment
15
Q
Is there a correlation between water intake and food intake? What is a few ways to ensure the bird drinks?
A
Don’t forget the water!
- There’s a direct correlation between amount of water consumed and amount feed consumed
- If a chicken stops drinking it will stop eating soon after
- Water should be kept at appropriate
temperature and freshness
- Always provide at least two or three additional drinkers in excess of the estimated water consumption
16
Q
What is important to remember about feed quality for birds?
A
- Feed should not be stale, rancid, or moldy
- Feed storage: dry cool area (away from direct sunlight,
moisture or heat) - Do not use/buy feed that is not fresh
- vitamins may degrade
17
Q
What is mash feed? Peletized feed? Crumbled feed?
A
- Mash feed consists of all ingredients ground into particles and mixed loosely together
- Pelletized feed is mash that is held together with a binder and then heat-treated, extruded, and cut into various lengths and diameters
- Crumbled feed consists of pelletized feed broken down into smaller pieces
- Scratch should only be given as a snack.
- Chickens can forage around for bugs and greens but always provide them with appropriate formulated balanced feed.
18
Q
What can foraging be used for? How can you have foraging occur?
A
- Foraging can be used as enrichment and can improve
the performance of many avian species including chickens - Foraging can be achieved by allowing to have free
access to a natural environment or to with foraging
tools or toys
19
Q
What are the benefits of feeding pellets or crumbles vs. Mash? What is the cons?
A
Pros:
- Feed is compacted in pellet form
- the bird is able to consume and metabolize a greater amount of feed
- Pelleted feeds are a complete unit of feed
- Birds are unable to pick out different ingredients
- This form of feed also makes it possible for producers to formulate high-energy, high-protein diets that aid in maximizing the amount of
feed used to produce a pound of meat
- Some mash feeds are extremely dusty and difficult to handle
Cons:
Added cost to conversion of mash to crumble/ pellet
20
Q
what is the benefit of complete feeding?
A
Complete feed does not require additional supplements - Easiest and simplest method of feeding
- Downside: Usually a bit more expensive, so can be mixed with grain (v/v) to reduce cost
- Its important to feed the animals according to their
respective life stage
- A laying hen mash is too high in calcium for a growing bird
as it can cause orthopedic disease
21
Q
What kind of feed should meat type birds receive? What will this improve? What about diet for starting broilers? What about egg laying birds?
A
- Feed for all meat-type birds will be pelleted
- This results in 4% improvement in feed efficiency - Diets for starting broilers will be a “crumble”
- Feed for egg-laying birds most often comes as a mash (no pelleting process)
22
Q
What can be used to encourage feeding during hotter months? What about scratch feed?
A
- Crumbled diets can be used to encourage feed intake during hotter months.
- Scratch feed should not be considered a complete feed for any type of bird
- It should only be thrown out as an occasional treat
23
Q
What is the largest component of poultry diets? What is it provided by? What fibers are included? What is the concern with excessive fiber?
A
Carbohydrates. It is usually provided by grains.
Includes fibers such as cellulose which is indigestible by the bird but can support gi health.
Excessive fiber can decrease digestibility and decrease production
24
Q
What determines fat content in avian diets? What are the kcal/kg content of diets for meat type birds, will it contain more or less fat? When may it be beneficial to use lower fat diets and why?
A
- Fat content may differ according to the bird and the goals
(meat/egg/pet) - Diets for meat-type birds, for example, will contain over 3,000 kcal per kilogram and are higher in fat
Higher fat and lower protein diets may be used in the summer as less heat is produced by fat metabolism
25
What fat sources can change the fatty acid composition of the egg yolk in birds?
Use of certain fat sources such as fish meal, flaxseed, corn and various oils can change the fatty acid composition in the egg yolk
26
What are the protein sources for birds? What is needed for complete protein in birds. What may need to be supplemented in avian diets?
- Protein can come from plants or animal protein (such as protein
meals)
- Several plant proteins are needed to provide a complete protein (legume + grain may come close)
- Lysine and methionine may be deficient but are available as a supplement
27
What additional amino acids to chickens require ?
proline and histidine
28
What can increased urea production caused in birds? When are protein requirements are high? What is the general trend of protein digestibility and bird species?
- Increased urea production can also increase smell and airway irritation if excrements are not cleaned
- Protein digestibility differs between species according to their natural diet
- Protein requirements during egg laying are high, especially in chickens that lay many eggs. Also higher during growth.
29
What is grit? What does it do? How frequently should it be made available to birds? What about calcium grit?
- Hard insoluble granite grit should be available to the birds
- It helps food digestion in the ventriculus
- Should be made available 2-3 days a month
- Calcium grit can be provided but it does not last long as the calcium dissolves and absorbed
30
What are coccidiostats? What are they labeled by? What may be a reason they need to be removed from the diet?
- A coccidiostat (antiprotozoal agent, for example, Amprolium) is generally added to the diets of pullets and meat birds that are raised on the ground
- Feed manufacturers label feed according to the type and age of poultry (for example: starter, grower, layer) with appropriate instructions for use
- Some coccidiostats need to be withdrawn if the animal or its products are used for food ( not for human consumption, egg laying birds of meat birds cannot be on coccidiostats)
31
What can cause vitamin A deficiency in birds?
Causes:
- vitamin A deficiency can result when the level in the diet is inadequate or the vitamin added to the diet is oxidized by rancid fat in
the diet
- Vitamin A deficiency may also occur as a result of neomycin, a common antimicrobial that reduces its absorption
- Inadequate fat content would also cause vitamin A deficiency
32
What are the clinical signs of vitamin A deficiency?
Clinical signs:
- Cheese-like, but odorless, discharge from one or more eye
- Extremely thin birds (i.e., emaciation)
- Weak and/or uncoordinated birds
- Ruffled feathers
- Eyelids stuck together (referred to as sicca) - Water discharge from the throat (referred to as roup), nostrils or eyes
- Egg production and hatchability decrease in adults
(Looks like it has pinkeye)
33
What are the 3 main disorders seen in chicks deficient in vitamin E?
The three main disorders seen in chicks deficient in vitamin E are encephalomalacia, exudative diathesis (=accumulations of blood plasma under the skin), and muscular dystrophy
34
What is crazy chick disease?
Chicks with neuro signs. This results from hemorrhage and edema within
the granular layers of the cerebellum
35
When can diets with appropriate vitamin E cause deficiencies?
- The diet should have sufficient vitamin E, especially if high in unsaturated fatty acids
- Diet that is stored long -\> fat oxidation and vitamin E depletion
36
What can calcium and phosphorus deficiency cause?
Calcium and phosphorus deficiency can cause:
- developmental and reproductive disease
- During growth, a deficiency in either mineral would cause poor skeletal maturation and mineralization
- Poor calcium intake would result in poor shell quality in a laying hen
- This would cause depletion of skeletal calcium stores as well ‘cage layer fatigue’
- Low calcium can also result in ‘egg binding’
37
What is rickets in birds?
- Rickets (a term commonly pertains to vitamin D or phosphorus deficiency) occurs most commonly in young meat birds.
- Calcium deficiency is termed nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism
38
What are the signs of rickets in birds? How can you prevent rickets?
- Young broilers and turkey poults can exhibit lameness at ~10–14 days of age
- Rickets is not a failure in the initiation of bone mineralization. But an impairment of the early maturation of this process.
- Young birds have limited ability to digest saturated fats
- Undigested compounds can complex with calcium to form insoluble soaps leading to an induced deficiency of
calcium and low absorption of vitamin D3
25(OH)D is more bioavailable and is now popular in us in lieu of vitamin D3
- There is often an enlargement of the ends of the long bones, with a widening of the epiphyseal plate
- Prevention- vitamin D3 supplementation
- A diet with sufficient fat to facilitate fat soluble vitamin absorption
39
What is tibial dyschondroplasia? Where is it seen? What is its cause? What are the clinical signs? How can it be prevented?
- A disease that is characterized by an abnormal cartilage mass in the proximal head of the tibiotarsus
- Likely genetic + nutritional background
- Mostly in fast growers
- Signs can occur early but more usually are not initially seen until 14–25 days of age
Signs: Pain, Decreased ambulation, Stiff gait
Prevention: Can be preventable by slowing down growth rate and a balanced diet with respect to calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D3
40
What is cagelayer fatigue? Who is it seen in? How can it be preventted?
- Can result in neurological signs due to hypocalcemia or even spinal fractures due to poor bone mineralization
- The condition is rarely seen in floor-housed birds, suggesting that reduced activity within the cage is a predisposing factor
- Diets must provide adequate quantities of calcium and phosphorus to prevent deficiencies
- Providing calcium carbonate or limestone can help as it will remain in the gizzard and slow-release calcium
41
What occurs in manganese deficiency? What is the prevention?
- Similar to calcium and phosphorus deficiencies, manganese deficiency may result in joint disease and thin egg-shell
- A manganese-deficient breeder diet can result in chondrodystrophy in chick embryos
- Chicks would have short wings and legs
- Prevention: diet should include sufficient manganese
42
What is caused if there is a deficiency of copper and iron in bird diets?
- Deficiency in copper or iron can cause anemia
- Copper deficiency may also cause orthopedic disease as copper is important for cartilage maturation
- Copper deficiency can lead to rupture of the aorta likely related to failure to synthesize desmosine which is integral to the vessel wall.
43
What occurs if there is a zinc deficiency in bird food? When must it be supplemented? What do you see in young chicks with zinc deficiency?
- Clinical signs are similar to those in other species including skin dermatosis, poor growth, and musculoskeletal disease - Zinc needs to be supplemented where plants with phytates are used as part of the meal unless phytase (an enzyme that breaks phytates) is included
- Zinc deficiency causes decreased laying and poor embryo development
- In young chicks: retarded growth, shortening and thickening of leg bones and enlargement of the hock joint, scaling of the skin (especially on the feet), very poor feathering
44
What is the cause of curled toe disease/ or curly toe paralysis? Who is more susceptible?
- This is the result of riboflavin (vitamin B2) deficiency
- Chickens are more susceptible to this compared to other birds
45
What should the diet breakdown be for psittacine Nutrition?
Key to proper health
70-80% Main Diet
Pellet based or homemade diet
20-30% Remaining Diet
Vegetables
Grains/Nuts
Fruit -only small amounts
Seeds - only as a treat
If they are not feeding pellets, likely diet is unbalanced.
Avocados are toxic and can cause dyspnea and respiratory distress
46
What are the advantages to feeding formulated diets to Psittacines? disadvantages?
Advantages:
nutritionally balanced and better health, avoids selectivity by the bird, simple, clean, no vitamin supplementation
Disadvantages: cost, acceptance, boredom (nutrient dense)
47
What is a toxic vegetable in birds and what can it cause?
Avocados are toxic, can cause dyspnea and respiratory distress.
48
How should supplements be utilized in Psittacines?
Unnecessary when on balanced (formulated) diet
May be useful in a sick bird or when weaning to a pelleted diet
In the food, not in the water ( some vitamins will degrade in water, some change taste of H2O
Some birds will have difficulty changing to peletted diet.
49
What birds require calcium supplementation ( in terms of Psittacines)?
1) African Grey Parrots
2) Actively laying birds
50
What is the issue with feeding a bird seed only diet? (Psittacines)
Most seeds in bird diets are:
High in Fat Low Calcium, iron, copper, manganese, iodine Low Vitamin A, C, D3, B
Low in protein and specific amino acids (lysine, methionine)
Sometimes high in phosphorous
Millet: high in starch
Peanuts: high in fat and potential foraflatoxicosis
51
What effects can be seen in Psittacines from seed based diets?
• Over time, will see effects from these diets: poor feather and skin quality, liver disease, kidney disease, etc. Addictive; difficult to convert a bird from seeds to pellets
Seed inhalation: small birds, big seeds (cockatiels & millet seed aspiration)
52
Psittacines: What birds are more commonly affected by obesity? What are the multisystemic problems? What is the treatment?
Amazons, budgerigars, and Quakers most commonly affected
Multisystemic Problems:
hepatic lipidosis, lipomas xanthomas, arthritis, atherosclerosis, etc
Controlled weight loss/diet modification/exercise (flight –in a safe area)
53
What are the clinical signs of hepatic lipidosis in birds? Is it primary or secondary?
Can occur as primary disease but more often secondary to obesity + anorexia
CLINICAL SIGNS Varies with severity- anorexia, depression, diarrhea, dyspnea, liver failure
54
What is occuring in this picture?
Hepatic lipidosis
55
How do you diagnosis birds with hepatic lipidosis?
DIAGNOSIS Serum liver enzymes and bile acids
Radiographs/ultrasound
Liver biopsy/aspirate (with pathology review)
56
What is the treatment for birds with hepatic lipidosis? What is the prognosis?
Supportive and symptomatic
Tube feedings
Thermal support - O2 cages with warmth typically ideal.
Minimize stress -\> only handle when necessary
Lactulose (for hepatic encephalopathy)
Vitamin K as needed ( if hemmorhaging add vit K)
PROGNOSIS: Varies with severity, and ability to correct underlying problems
57
What causes secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism in birds?
- Diets low in calcium, low in Vitamin D, or high in phosphorus
- All meat diets (and not whole prey) in raptors
- Bone is resorbed to maintain blood calcium concentrations leading to osteopenia
- Increased PTH seen
58
How yan you diagnosis secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism?
Examination and palpation
CBC, Plasma biochemistries, ionized calcium (Low Ca++ in chem) (increased ionized calcium)
Radiographs to evaluate general bone density -Fractures, bone deformities, poor bone density
59
What is the treatment of secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism in birds?
Diet correction
Calcium +/- Vitamin D supplementation
Cage restriction
Fractures require external coaptation
60
What is the prognosis of secondart nutritional hyperparathyroidism in pisttacines?
* Fair to good if detected early and corrected
* Some deformities will be permanent
* Spinal fractures and paralysis denote grave prognosis
61
What is the signs of hypocalcemia in African Grey Parrots? How do you treat it? What monitoring is necessary? Why are African Greys specifically at risk?
▪ Present for tremors or seizures, or even cardiac arrhythmias but not orthopedic problems
▪ Treat with parenteral calcium and long term dietary calcium supplementation
▪ Monitor plasma calcium every 4-6 months and supplement as needed
- Increase exposure to UV light
African Greys have higher calcium requirements than other birds?
62
What occurs with calcium deficiency and egg binding? When would this situation become urgent?
During reproductive activity- calcium demands are highly increased
Serum total calcium increases in a reproductive hen to levels that can exceed 15 mg/ dl.
Diet that does not provide enough calcium may predispose the bird for shell abnormalities and egg binding
- Can become emergent with egg rupture.
63
In an emergency how can I administer calcium?What about in chronic situations?
In emergency: Calcium gluconate 100 mg/kg IM (dilute in 0.9% saline or injectable water)
For chronic hypocalcemia: in addition to dietary changes, calcium glubionate up to 100 mg/kg PO SID for most species
64
What occurs with hypovitaminosis A? When is it seen more commonly? What conditions can be seen as a result?
▪ Sinuses, oral cavity, and skin most affected
▪ Most common in all- seed-diets
▪ Blunting of choanal papillae
▪ Plaque formation in oral cavity
▪ Abscess formation
Conditions occuring from this: Squamous metaplasia and hyperkeratosis of epithelial cells
65
What are the clinical signs of hypervitaminosis A?
CLINICAL SIGNS
▪ Sinusitis/upper respiratory disease
▪ Recurring bacterial infections
▪ Blunted choanal papillae
▪ White nodular plaques in the oral cavity
▪ Hyperkeratosis of skin
▪ Gout and renal failure if ureters affected
▪ Decreased reproductive success
66
What nutritional deficiency can cause lesions like this?
Hypovitaminosis A
67
What other major symptom is typical in hypervitaminosis A? What is the treatment?
Pododermatitis
Treatment:
▪ Correct dietary deficiencies and convert to pelleted diet
▪ Offer foods high in beta carotenes (dark-leafy greens and yellow-orange veggies)
▪ Parenteral supplementation carries risk of iatrogenic hypervitaminosis
68
What is likely causing the pododermatitis seen in this picture?
Hypervitaminosis A
69
What can be seen in an iodine deficiency? What bird is classic for presenting with this? How would it be diagnosed? What is the suggested therapy/ treatment?
▪ Classic disease of budgerigars
▪ Swelling in clavicular region, voice changes, dyspnea, and regurgitation
▪ Diagnosis via history, physical exam, and response to therapy
▪ CT scan would be diagnostic for enlarged thyroid
▪ Therapy is oral iodine supplementation
70
What occurs in birds with Vitamin E/ Selenium Deficiency? What bird group is it most common in? What are the clinical signs?
Most common in piscivorous birds
Can occur in seed-eaters, especially with rancid oils/fats
CLINICAL SIGNS
1. Neurological (tremors,
paralysis, ataxia)
2. Myopathies
3. Steatitis
71
How do you diagnose hypovitaminosis E and Selenium deficiency? What is the treatment? What is the prevention?
DIAGNOSIS
History, physical exam, and response to treatment Serum vitamin E levels
TREATMENT
Parenteral therapy followed with oral supplementation
PREVENTION
Oral supplementation to fish eating birds as preventative measure
72
What occurs in birds with a thiamine deficiency? What is it most common in? What are the clinical signs? What is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention:?
Most common in piscivorous birds (thiaminase release from fish)
Can occur in birds on all meat diet
CLINICAL SIGNS Neurological : opisthotonus, tremors, paralysis, ataxia
DIAGNOSIS
History, physical exam, and response to treatment
TREATMENT
Parenteral therapy followed with oral supplementation
PREVENTION
Oral supplementation as preventative measure
73
What is hemochromatosis? What bird is it most common in? What is the cause of this condition?
“Iron-storage Disease”
Mynahs, toucans, starlings, and birds-of-paradise
Very efficient GI iron absorption + high iron diet = hemochromatosis
74
What are the clinical signs and diagnosis of hemochomatosis?
CLINICAL SIGNS
Liver failure, ascites, dyspnea
DIAGNOSIS
High suspicion from signalment, history, and physical Radiographs/Ultrasound
- Liver Biopsy is definitive
75
What is the treatment and prevention for hemochromaosis?
TREATMENT &
PREVENTION
Serial Phlebotomy
Iron Chelators
Low iron diet (\<100 ppm)
Avoid Citrus fruits
Add Tannins to diet
76
What is avian kidney disease? Is it common? What is the major nitrogenous waste in birds?
Relatively common (up to 30% of avian patients!)
Uric acid is the major nitrogenous waste product in birds (rather than urea or ammonia)
When the kidneys don’t function properly the glomerular filtration rate is reduced
77
What is gout in birds? What lab values / diagnostics can be seen?
Elevated serum uric acid levels lead to crystal formation in joints or on organs surfaces
Causes
Excess protein (purine), calcium, Vitamin D3, renal disease and hypovitaminosis A have all been implicated
78
What is the treatment of gout in birds?
TREATMENT
Decrease protein/purine in diet
Allopurinol ?
Often have concurrent renal failure
Fluid therapy
Phosphate binders
79
Why is tube feeding important in birds?
Tube feeding provides:
Nutritional support
Caloric intake
Avoid if bird is too weak or is in shock, stabilize first with fluids Daily weights
If more than 5% weight loss in a day
Volume: depends on size of bird
80
How should you wean an adult bird off a diet seed?
Address and correct the patient’s health status first
Slow and progressive
Various options:
Cold turkey
Habituation
Feeding times
81
How can you hand rear baby psittacines?
Reasons to Hand Feed:
Tamer pets, double clutching, bad parenting
Formulas are very important
Problems for inexperiencedowners:
beak malformation, oral
trauma, crop burns and fistulas
82
What should you feed to raptors and piscivorous birds? What should you avoid? Should you provide supplements?
Feed whole prey. Do not gut prey. All meat diet leads to SNHP
Avoid fat prey items (e.g guinea pigs). Good source of properly euthanized preys
Fish high in PU fats, so feed fresh or properly stored fish and supplement with Vitamin E/Se
Fish: thiaminase, so add thiamine
83
What should you feed passerines? What are passerines? What condition is common in mynah birds?
Softbills: canaries, finches, mynah birds
Do well on fortified seed mix, but good idea to supplement
Mynah birds often have iron overload disorder:
(hemosiderosis, hemochromatosis)
84
What are nectarivorous birds? What should you feed them? What is important about their stool quality ? What is an important part of their upkeep?
Lories and lorikeets (Loriinae)
Many commercial diets, formulas, solutions
Messy diet, messy feces (not diarrhea)
Need to keep clean (bacterial contamination, yeast infections)
85
What are Rhamphastids? What should you feed them? What are they very susceptible to?
Highly specialized beak
Fruits and commercial low-iron formula
Related to woodpeckers (Order Piciformes, family Rhamphastidae)
Highly susceptible to hemochromatosis
86
What are Ratites ? What other birds can be treated simillarly nutritionally? What problems do they face? What should you feed them with?
Ratites, gees and ducks, pigeons and doves, chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quails and peafowl
Commercial diets available but not necessarily adequate.
Problems include rotational and angular limb deformity, angel (oar) wing, paresis and slipped tendon, rolled toes (riboflavin deficiency), etc..
87
