Exam # 3 Flashcards

Question

What is the interest in raw diet?

Answer 1

People thing dogs are mini wolves, they are not. They also are concerned for the loss of enzymes during cooking. Some vets support it which is wild.

Answer 2

We are evaluating the food needs for the next month. • What will the bees needs be? • What will the weather be like? • What food is available in my area? Very common beginner mistake – Not think about what will happen over the next few weeks

Answer 3

Important in omnivores No requirement for them, but provide energy Sources: grain, cereal Just like other species- excess energy is converted to lipid and stored Carnivores may not do well with a high carbohydrate diet • Like cats, they have low hepatic glucokinase enzyme

Answer 4

1: 1 standard for growth 2: 1 fall feeding.

Answer 5

* Species differences * Carnivore, omnivore and herbivore * Life stages? * Fry→juvenile→adult→broodstock * Feeding preferences * Floating / sinking / slow sinking / live / size

Answer 6

Calcium and phosphorus deficiency can cause: - developmental and reproductive disease - During growth, a deficiency in either mineral would cause poor skeletal maturation and mineralization - Poor calcium intake would result in poor shell quality in a laying hen - This would cause depletion of skeletal calcium stores as well ‘cage layer fatigue’ - Low calcium can also result in ‘egg binding’

Answer 7

- Feed for all meat-type birds will be pelleted - This results in 4% improvement in feed efficiency - Diets for starting broilers will be a "crumble" - Feed for egg-laying birds most often comes as a mash (no pelleting process)

Answer 8

Feed hay ad-lib • Hay is important for GI motility, normal GI microflora, normal occlusion • Alfalfa/legume hay in juveniles (high in protein, calcium) • Grass hay in adults • Formulated high quality pellets (additional vitamins and minerals)= 1 Tbsp/g.pig/day • Vitamin C supplement- minimum 2 mg/g.pig/day • Vegetables and fruit (peppers, parsley, kiwi, cabbage)

Answer 9

- Wild caught fish for risk of parasites - High fat fish for vitamin E depletion - Some fish contain thiaminase which breaks down vitamin B1 and can lead to a deficiency [sardines, herring, carp, mackerel, and anchovy may all contain thiaminase] - Crayfish are not recommended because they may harbor the bacterium (Beneckia chitonvora) which has been implicated in shell disease in turtles

Answer 10

- Protein can come from plants or animal protein (such as protein meals) - Several plant proteins are needed to provide a complete protein (legume + grain may come close) - Lysine and methionine may be deficient but are available as a supplement

Answer 11

10‐40 ml of water per 100 g body weight • Automatic waterers better than sipper bottles • Pre‐masticated food spit into sipper bottle, causing clogs • Raised, mounted feeders are preferred • Prevent overturning

Answer 12

- This is the result of riboflavin (vitamin B2) deficiency - Chickens are more susceptible to this compared to other birds

Answer 13

- Vitamin A deficiency often occurs in reptiles (lizards and tortoises) fed an un-supplemented diet with vegetables, fruit and insects with low vitamin A or beta carotene content ## Footnote * Clinical signs typically include squamous metaplasia which results in conjunctivitis, respiratory disease, and stomatitis * In red ear sliders, respiratory disease may make them swim lopsided

Answer 14

• History- what is the diet that is provided? - How often it is provided Bowls, cleanliness • Reproductive status- - Nutritional needs for reproductively active reptiles are higher: females need energy for development of ovarian follicles, oviductal eggs and embryos and require calcium for egg laying - Male snakes may refuse food during courtship and copulation or during times that seasonally correlate with these activities - Females may not accept food while gravid • Health status- - Sick reptiles may feed differently and may have different requirements

Answer 15

Enophthalmos ( corneal abrasion?)

Answer 16

* Fair to good if detected early and corrected * Some deformities will be permanent * Spinal fractures and paralysis denote grave prognosis

Answer 17

In an emergency- glucose or corn syrup on the gums can stabilize blood sugar • This is not a good option long term- high blood glucose stimulate of additional insulin secretion • Long term treatment • High protein high fat food (‘duck’ or ‘dook’ soup recipes) can be used temporarily • Food should be available at all times • Ferrets should be encouraged to eat every 2-4 hours/ food available 24 hours/day • Surgical treatment/glucocorticoids

Answer 18

Flowers are not created equal. Some flowers are good for pollen, some good for nectar, some for both.

Answer 19

Most seeds in bird diets are: High in Fat Low Calcium, iron, copper, manganese, iodine Low Vitamin A, C, D3, B Low in protein and specific amino acids (lysine, methionine) Sometimes high in phosphorous Millet: high in starch Peanuts: high in fat and potential foraflatoxicosis

Answer 20

 Examination and palpation  CBC, Plasma biochemistries, ionized calcium (Low Ca++ in chem) (increased ionized calcium)  Radiographs to evaluate general bone density -Fractures, bone deformities, poor bone density

Answer 21

In emergency: Calcium gluconate 100 mg/kg IM (dilute in 0.9% saline or injectable water)  For chronic hypocalcemia: in addition to dietary changes, calcium glubionate up to 100 mg/kg PO SID for most species

Answer 22

Bad- Little royal jelly visible

Answer 23

Queen’s pheromones elicit feeding and care from workers. Queen nutrition is really a sign of worker/colony nutrition.

Answer 24

During reproductive activity- calcium demands are highly increased  Serum total calcium increases in a reproductive hen to levels that can exceed 15 mg/ dl.  Diet that does not provide enough calcium may predispose the bird for shell abnormalities and egg binding - Can become emergent with egg rupture.

Answer 25

Avocados are toxic, can cause dyspnea and respiratory distress.

Answer 26

- Reptiles are attracted to prey by smell, movement and temperature • This can be a challenge transitioning to frozen prey - Thaw frozen prey quickly to prevent bacterial growth (‘intestinal bloom’) • This is usually best done in a bath with hot water - Some snakes can be ‘finicky’ - For example, ball pythons prefer gerbilles that are their ‘natural’ prey - Sometimes ‘animating’ the prey can help increase interest

Answer 27

1. Underestimating the amount of feed bees need 2. Underestimating the time needed to take the feed in and dry it

Answer 28

- Aquatic reptiles are not at risk of dehydration usually, but water quality is critical - Bacterial cultures may be a part of the routine water quality assessment - Aquatic turtles secrete ammonia that can change water pH and support bacterial growth

Answer 29

Pododermatitis Treatment: ▪ Correct dietary deficiencies and convert to pelleted diet ▪ Offer foods high in beta carotenes (dark-leafy greens and yellow-orange veggies) ▪ Parenteral supplementation carries risk of iatrogenic hypervitaminosis

Answer 30

Tube feeding provides: Nutritional support  Caloric intake  Avoid if bird is too weak or is in shock, stabilize first with fluids  Daily weights  If more than 5% weight loss in a day  Volume: depends on size of bird

Answer 31

* Water should be always available in spill-proof bowls or sipping bottles * Treat should be limited to 10% of the diet * Commercial high protein treats, human foods (meat, egg) are acceptable

Answer 32

Hypervitaminosis A

Answer 33

Prey species- pay attention to signs of distress • Start exam by observation from a distance • BCS, bodyweight should be evaluated every time • Care must be given to gentle abdominal palpation • Oral evaluation

Answer 34

Ferret obesity is increasingly recognized as an important nutritional disease • Some weight gain is seasonal • Males are typically larger and have more adipose tissue compared with females • Many ferret owners feed ad-libitum and mix commercial pelleted diet with canned cat food, and other treat items • Excessive administration of high fat supplements, such as Ferretone (8-in-1, Spectrum Brands, Inc. Islandia, NY)

Answer 35

• Sugar gliders are also at risk of becoming obese due to excess caloric intake and lack of exercise • They are also prone to hepatitis associated with iron storage disease if fed too much high iron foods such as meat and some leafy vegetables

Answer 36

A good representative of most murine species • Used as pet, research animal

Answer 37

- The amount of saliva differs between species according to diet (less in fish eating birds, more in birds that eat grain/seed) - The crop is an enlargement of the esophagus, cranial to the thoracic inlet (not present in gulls, penguins) - The crop can be palpated in a physical exam - The crop can become impacted with dry food in a dehydrated bird

Answer 38

- Visual inspection can suggest fat deposition along the pectoral region - Body condition score in birds is best appreciated by assessing the musculature and fat coverage in the pectoral region - Crop palpation: is important to make sure there is no impaction or stasis of food in the crop. - Visual inspection of the plumage can also suggest malnutrition. For example, this bird should be bright green and not dark - The oropharynx should be inspected Most birds would have a choanal slit and choanal papilae - The overall skin, feet, and feathers may all be indicators of malnutrition

Answer 39

- The general structure of the GI tract in reptiles is generally similar to birds - Enzymatic digestion (pepsin) may begin in the distal esophagus - Reptile stomachs are divided to fundus and pyloric parts - The fundus is the muscular part, similar to gizzard in birds - The pyloric part secretes acid and enzymes

Answer 40

Foragers will find the scouted location using information learned during the dance, visual cues, and scent (from nectar offered by dancers and foot pheromones on flowers.

Answer 41

- Clinical signs are often non-specific: lethargy, dehydration, inappetence, poor BCS - May have bad odor, tail tip necrosis - May be constipated due to kidney enlargement - Gout tophi may be present - With chronic dehydration- urate uroliths may also occur In some cases- MBD - Vitamin D activation include the activity of renal 1-alpha hydroxylase. Without this- MBD may ensue

Answer 42

- Protein – There should ALWAYS be excess pollen/ bread stored Carbs – incoming nectar

Answer 43

Wax production

Answer 44

• Time of year • Age/strength of colony • Weather • Comb building needs • Amount of brood • ETC. You can only tell by looking at the hive, the plants, and the weather. Experience!!!

Answer 45

- Bacterial infections may be secondary complications in these animals • Usually this would progress to poor hydration, weightloss Treatment: Correct diet, provide additional vitamin A by mouth or by injection oral administration of vitamin A (200 to 300 IU/kg body weight) Be careful with injection of over supplementat

Answer 46

Don’t forget the water! - There’s a direct correlation between amount of water consumed and amount feed consumed - If a chicken stops drinking it will stop eating soon after - Water should be kept at appropriate temperature and freshness - Always provide at least two or three additional drinkers in excess of the estimated water consumption

Answer 47

- Correct husbandry: ensure adequate intake of calcium, vitamin A, vitamin D - Improve hydration: soaking, humidity, water supply, SQ fluids if needed • Reducehighphosphorusfooditemsandsupplements - For example, in insectivore reptiles make sure to gutload the feeders with high calcium supplements, otherwise they are low Ca:P ratio

Answer 48

• In the US, ferrets are typically sold after being spayed or neutered and descended by the breeding facility before they are 6 weeks of age • Few private breeders exist (limited genetic pool) • Ferrets belong to the Mustelidae family that also includes mink, weasels, badgers, etc

Answer 49

• Continuously growing incisors, molars and premolars • Rabbits have two sets of incisors (peg teeth) • Require roughage for gnawing and mastication to wear teeth

Answer 50

- Foraging can be used as enrichment and can improve the performance of many avian species including chickens - Foraging can be achieved by allowing to have free access to a natural environment or to with foraging tools or toys

Answer 51

Hypovitaminosis A

Answer 52

- Dehydration is common, especially in sick reptiles - Water intake is important to allow for normal uric acid secretion in terrestrial species and urea in aquatic species - Chronic dehydration may cause long term complications including kidney disease and urolithiasis

Answer 53

• Most common species of domesticated hedgehog is the African Pygmy hedgehog • Hybrid of the White-bellied or Four-toed Hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) and the Algerian Hedgehog (A. algirus) • Smaller than the European hedgehog • Domesticated species prefer a warm climate (above 70 °F) and do not naturally hibernate • Several color mutations exist (albino, pinto) • They are omnivores with a simple stomach • Vomiting reflex present

Answer 54

 Address and correct the patient’s health status first  Slow and progressive Various options:  Cold turkey  Habituation  Feeding times

Answer 55

• Urolithiasis is a common presentation in rabbits and guinea pigs • The etiology is not completely understood, but likely involves diet and body condition • The vast majority of uroliths in rabbits and guinea pigs are calcium carbonate in composition

Answer 56

- Can result in neurological signs due to hypocalcemia or even spinal fractures due to poor bone mineralization - The condition is rarely seen in floor-housed birds, suggesting that reduced activity within the cage is a predisposing factor - Diets must provide adequate quantities of calcium and phosphorus to prevent deficiencies - Providing calcium carbonate or limestone can help as it will remain in the gizzard and slow-release calcium

Answer 57

* Dilated cardiomyopathy is common in hedgehogs * Etiology is unclear-genetic? Nutritional? * Possible benefit to providing taurine and carnitine supplementation * Medical management with pimobendin, furosemide * Prognosis is poor

Answer 58

A colony of bees can use over 400 lbs of honey per year. • Requires thousands of floral visits • They will forage over 20,000 acres (3 mile radius from hive) - Estimate 1 acre in constant bloom supports one colony.

Answer 59

Dogs - Can be done, commercially done and home cooked. Vegan much more difficult, recommend diets that has undergone feeding trials. Need to account tof digestibility and bioavailability. - Example Purina HA - Growth Cats - Can be done- in THEORY as long as you can synthetically produce essential nutrients. More essential nutrients required are from meats. No commercial diets currently. Possible serious deficiencies Taurine, B1, Methionine

Answer 60

• MDB diagnosis is based on physical exam findings and imaging - Ionized calcium: limited data, not simple to analyze (should be analyzed immediately) Also- reference ranges may not exist in all species - In a study evaluating healthy green iguanas, the mean ionized calcium concentration in blood was 1.47 (0.105 mmol/L), with no significant variation by gender or age - Markedly low ionized calcium may be an indication of MBD

Answer 61

* There are several commercial diets that can be used to provide assisted nutrition to herbivores * These consists of blends of chopped hay that can be mixed with water and provided through a catheter-tip syringe * Choose a diet that provides the longest fiber possible with consideration to the animal’s size and route of feeding * very fine powdered fiber is less likely to stimulate gastrointestinal motility * Fine fiber particles may enter the cecum and undergo fermentation instead of reaching the colon, where longer fiber promotes motility Brands: Oxbow Critical Care, Oxbow Animal Health, Murdock, NE, USA; Emeraid Herbivore, Lafeber’s, Cornell, IL, USA

Answer 62

Conjunctivitis

Answer 63

TREATMENT & PREVENTION Serial Phlebotomy Iron Chelators Low iron diet (\<100 ppm) Avoid Citrus fruits Add Tannins to diet

Answer 64

• Ferret fed diets high in plant-based proteins, such as yellow corn, are at risk to develop struvite urolithiasis (magnesium ammonium phosphate) • For example, low quality dog or cat food • Metabolism of plant proteins produces more alkaline urine than the typical acidic urine of ferrets • Struvite uroliths develop in alkaline pH • Usually, these struvite uroliths are sterile and not due to an infection (unlike in dogs, like cats)

Answer 65

* Water soluble vitamins vulnerable to nutrient leaching * Vitamin C, B12, choline and pantothenic acid dissipate in 30 seconds of feed hitting water * Need to be provided in a protected form

Answer 66

- Golden Retriever's, mixed breeds, labradors, great dane and pitbulls had the highest # of DCM reported but it was found in both large and small breeds. - Association with Dry food being primary formulation fed for large number of cases. - Variety of companies and manufacturers were implicated.

Answer 67

 Lories and lorikeets (Loriinae)  Many commercial diets, formulas, solutions  Messy diet, messy feces (not diarrhea)  Need to keep clean (bacterial contamination, yeast infections)

Answer 68

herbivores: - Is the diet of adequate freshness - Is there sufficient calcium? - Does the diet provide enough protein? - Does the diet provide sufficient vitamin A or vitamin A precursors ? - Is there sufficient insoluble fiber?

Answer 69

Scouting – bees will scout to find good sources of food within a ~ 5km range.

Answer 70

CLINICAL SIGNS Liver failure, ascites, dyspnea DIAGNOSIS High suspicion from signalment, history, and physical Radiographs/Ultrasound - Liver Biopsy is definitive

Answer 71

Medicated feeds * Some feeds are mixed with antibiotics, antifungals, antiparasitic medications * May be used to treat diseases; however, it is an opening for misuse * Some medicated feeds can also increase the fish weight and increase growth rate * On the other hand, this can contribute to antimicrobial resistance

Answer 72

- Some fish can utilize diet to change coloring - There are more than 600 types of carotenoids. - There are two broad classifications of carotenoids: carotenes and xanthophylls: - xanthophylls contain oxygen - carotenes are hydrocarbons and do not contain oxygen. - Absorb different wavelengths of light during plant’s photosynthesis process - xanthophylls are more yellow - carotenes are orange - Many fish have chromatophore cells that can utilize these compounds to change color

Answer 73

* Common in older reptiles, reptiles with poor diet or reptiles with inadequate husbandry * Especiallylizards,chameleons,tortoises - Chronic kidney disease is insidious, results from poor diet, chronic dehydration - Acute kidney injury can occur due to toxins, severe dehydration, infection Can occur in any age

Answer 74

Hepatic lipidosis

Answer 75

Up to 75% of all medical problem in pet birds have a nutritional background

Answer 76

- Make sure the prey provides a complete and balanced nutrition - Invertebrate prey may be dusted with a calcium vitamin D powder - Although dusting is not always the best way to provide nutrients - May cause excess or deficiency, or reduce palatability - The chitin exoskeleton is low in calcium - Also recommend to ‘gut- load’ [prefeed the prey so its nutritional value is increased]

Answer 77

- The rate of digestion for reptiles may vary depending on temperature, hydration, food type, and meal size - It takes 120 hours for a boa constrictor to digest the skeleton of a rodent

Answer 78

The optimal temperature is that when the fish energy efficiency is highest, and more energy can be invested in growth • Appetite is high • 25-30 °C for tropical fish • There is about 2.5 times increase in growth rate for every 10 °C

Answer 79

- Grass hay – ad libitum in adult rabbits • Juvenile rabbits may benefit from alfalfa/legume hay • Formulated pellets – 1/4 c per 3 kg body weight • “Treats” – vegetables, limited fruit ( avoid high sugar) • Water ad libitum via bowl or sipper bottle • High water consumption of 120 ml/kg

Answer 80

Complete feed does not require additional supplements - Easiest and simplest method of feeding - Downside: Usually a bit more expensive, so can be mixed with grain (v/v) to reduce cost - Its important to feed the animals according to their respective life stage - A laying hen mash is too high in calcium for a growing bird as it can cause orthopedic disease

Answer 81

- Scarcity or lack of nutrients - If bees cannot find enough flowers, they will rob resources from other hives. - Especially weak ones - Significant cause of disease spread.

Answer 82

- Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism is the most common form of MBD - It is usually diagnosed in young/juvenile reptiles This condition usually stems from poor husbandry: - Poor diet with low calcium or vitamin D3 (or both) - Low UV light exposure - Stress (overcrowding for example)

Answer 83

- Nutrition for small flocks and backyard poultry tends to be more variable than nutrition for egg laying hens or meat birds in a large-scale production setting - Diet can affect the health of the bird or affect productivity - When animals are used for production, feed is a major expense of the overall investment

Answer 84

Carbohydrates • Protein • Amino Acids • Lipids • Micronutrients

Answer 85

Protein sources * Mixtures of animal and vegetable protein can provide a good balance of essential amino acids * Fish meal- can also be used as a highly digestible protein source * Temperature affects protein digestion, therefore protein requirements can change at varying temperatures

Answer 86

Carbohydrates. It is usually provided by grains. Includes fibers such as cellulose which is indigestible by the bird but can support gi health. Excessive fiber can decrease digestibility and decrease production

Answer 87

Energy requirements • Reptiles are poikilothermic - There is no energy investment in maintaining body temperature. Therefore, energy requirements are relatively lower than mammals and birds (less than 50% of an mammal of the same size) - Ambient temperature affects metabolic rate, activity and digestion - Cold temperature will reduce appetite, food intake and can even dangerously slow digestion - A temperature gradient would help the reptile find an optimal temperature

Answer 88

Hive beetles can grow and destroy hive if too much protein powder/ protein is left for bees to eat

Answer 89

Do not use sugar in the raw. Bees cannot use them well because of high ash content. Otherwise they do not care which one to use.

Answer 90

Reptiles may not show signs of illness on physical examination • Diagnostic tests can help identify early signs of illness • Its important to use a laboratory that is experienced with processing reptile blood * Hematocrit tends to be lower • RBCs are fragile * Quick analysis is best

Answer 91

* Risk for toxo, brucella- both may cause severe adverse effects * Puppies more sensitive * Treat with Abs only if clinical disease is present. However may increase shedding of salmonella.

Answer 92

Pros: - Feed is compacted in pellet form - the bird is able to consume and metabolize a greater amount of feed - Pelleted feeds are a complete unit of feed - Birds are unable to pick out different ingredients - This form of feed also makes it possible for producers to formulate high-energy, high-protein diets that aid in maximizing the amount of feed used to produce a pound of meat - Some mash feeds are extremely dusty and difficult to handle Cons: Added cost to conversion of mash to crumble/ pellet

Answer 93

Start the physical exam from a distance, before you disturb the patient • Review all body systems of the patient • Pay attention to anything that could indicate nutritional factor • For example, opacities in the cornea, conjunctivitis, respiratory signs could be related to vitamin A deficiency • Orthopedic disease, bone deformity could be a sign of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D deficiency • Mucus membranes should be pink and moist, not pale or yellow (except bearded dragons) and not tacky

Answer 94

Acidify: Methionine Alkalize: Potassium citrate

Answer 95

• Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is relatively common in ferrets • Similar to other species, the etiology of this condition is unknown • On histology, most common presentation is lymphoplasamcytic infiltrates • Some ferrets respond well to diet change, and some ‘limited ingredient’ commercial diets are commercially available • Some ferrets would benefit from added fiber • This appears to be very idiosyncratic • Best to try a small amount of fiber and evaluate the response

Answer 96

* Dogs can produce taurine from methionine and cysteine * If a company calculated the protein % as total, rather than animal protein this could mean that much protein is vegetable protein * Legumes are high in protein, but relatively low in methionine and cysteine * In addition- legumes have several antinutritive compounds: * Phytates * Glycoproteins * Phytosterols * Phenols * These reduce digestibility, but are usually destroyed in cooking

Answer 97

Many available, not always easy to assess their quality and nutritional content, how appropriate they are for the species Use a manufacturer with adequate expertise, quality control Cancomeindifferentsizesand textures for different species Somecomeasgelstobe reconstituted

Answer 98

Pollen: Amount of brood and genetics Nectar: Food availability • Weather Bees do not gather honey based on what they need!!!!!!!

Answer 99

Seasonal changes ( particularly winter)

Answer 100

 Softbills: canaries, finches, mynah birds  Do well on fortified seed mix, but good idea to supplement  Mynah birds often have iron overload disorder: (hemosiderosis, hemochromatosis)

Answer 101

- Seen often in garter snakes and water snakes fed a high raw fish diet - This is again caused by thiaminase in the fish - Clinical signs: neurological signs- ataxia, seizures, rolling - Treatment: diet change to fish low on thiaminase, thiamin hydrochloride (25 mg/kg body weight, per os or intramuscularly)

Answer 102

• Over time, will see effects from these diets: poor feather and skin quality, liver disease, kidney disease, etc.  Addictive; difficult to convert a bird from seeds to pellets  Seed inhalation: small birds, big seeds (cockatiels & millet seed aspiration)

Answer 103

“Iron-storage Disease” Mynahs, toucans, starlings, and birds-of-paradise Very efficient GI iron absorption + high iron diet = hemochromatosis

Answer 104

Both dogs and cats digest and absorb carbohydrates (Kienzle et al. 1994; Morris et al. 1977) • Cats are in constant gluconeogenesis • Cats have lower glucokinase activity and are slower in clearing glucose (hexokinase has lower vmax) • However they are certainly able to digest, absorb, and utilize carbohydrates • No proven role for excess carbohydrates in inducing diabetes& cancer

Answer 105

Guinea pigs have continuously growing molars, premolars and incisors • These require roughage to wear down and prevent malocclusion and dental disease • They are monogastric hindgut fermenter herbivores • Long colon • Large cecum

Answer 106

- Mash feed consists of all ingredients ground into particles and mixed loosely together - Pelletized feed is mash that is held together with a binder and then heat-treated, extruded, and cut into various lengths and diameters - Crumbled feed consists of pelletized feed broken down into smaller pieces - Scratch should only be given as a snack. - Chickens can forage around for bugs and greens but always provide them with appropriate formulated balanced feed.

Answer 107

- Zinc - Vitamin D - Chlorine - Copper - EPA + DHA - Vitamin E - Calcium

Answer 108

• Sugar gliders are small, omnivorous, nocturnal gliding possums • Found throughout the northern and eastern parts of mainland Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea • Able to glide in the air • Attracted to high sugar foods • Hindgut fermenters • Well-developed cecum that utilizes bacterial fermentation to break down complex polysaccharides

Answer 109

- All weight loss in reptiles would include loss of adipose tissue as well as lean body mass - As a general rule- acute loss of 10% or more would require intervention - Same for chronic loss of 20% or more - Loss of lean body mass is accelerated with illness or during recovery from trauma or surgery - This takes long to replenish

Answer 110

Bees use their muscles to generate heat. This process requires a LOT of Carbs.

Answer 111

- Supplements may be helpful if fed a non-commercial diet - Or if the commercial diet is less than 50% of the total - Be careful with using supplements as: Not always needed, Quality control, Can change palatability If using a vitamin D supplement - Use vitamin D3 and not vitamin D2 as its efficacy is unknown Avoid excess - Do not rely on the calcium in multivitamins to be sufficient to meet the requirements - Usually not enough calcium is added May need to add a calcium supplement - As a general rule, vitamin A,D,E should be provided at a ratio of about 100:10:1

Answer 112

- Commercial reptile diets exist and are generally recommended - Choose a reputable manufacturer, with quality control and expertise - If in doubt regarding adequacy, you can send to lab analysis - Guaranteed analysis should be specified on the label and allow to calculate ME protein/fat/ carbohydrate

Answer 113

- UVB is the wavelength that converts 7-dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D3 in the skin - UVA provides additional light that stimulates activity (and also helps with conversion of vitamin D with secondary importance)

Answer 114

- Any antigen may cause an adverse response in predisposed dogs - There is no elevated antigenicity in certain food ingredients • IgE/IgM/IgA tests in blood or saliva, and intradermal tests are inaccurate

Answer 115

* Guinea pigs have two types of stool * Regular feces/pellets * Cecotrophs

Answer 116

Some bacteria, protozoa and nematodes that you may not expect in a healthy mammal are normal in reptiles Some can be opportunistic pathogens - Oxyurids are very common on fecal exams, and they are mostly nonpathogenic - Strongyloid nematodes are found throughout the reptilian GIT

Answer 117

Good = Larvae floating in royal jelly

Answer 118

- Treatment includes correcting the diet (add calcium as powder or formulated diet, correct Ca:P, adequate vitamin D) - Ensure adequate UV lighting - Underlying or concurrent disease is common Consider analgesia/anti-inflammatory medications if needed Injectable calcium usually not recommended Salmon calcitonin can be used as long as blood calcium is normal Fluids may be needed in many cases

Answer 119

* Recommend diet change for dogs on a GF diet * Measure plasma or whole blood taurine levels * Supplement? Only if low.

Answer 120

An acute decrease of 5% bodyweight, or a chronic decrease of 10% warrant further assessment

Answer 121

They are efficient at ingesting calcium

Answer 122

• Rats evolved to eat anything and will overconsume high fat and high carbohydrate treats • Seed based diets, table scraps can be high fat/high calorie • Rats on high quality formulated pelleted diets rarely become obese • Obesity predisposes to osteoarthritis, pododermatitis, neoplasia, renal disease

Answer 123

* Teeth: incisors continuously grow * Requires gnawing on material to wear teeth • Lacks a gallbladder to store bile * Adapted to small frequent meals • Omnivorous • Cannot vomit • Short life span: 2-3 years

Answer 124

Monogastric, hindgut fermenting herbivores • Long colon and large cecum • Produce cecotropes - fermentation creates cecotropes

Answer 125

DIAGNOSIS History, physical exam, and response to treatment Serum vitamin E levels TREATMENT Parenteral therapy followed with oral supplementation PREVENTION Oral supplementation to fish eating birds as preventative measure

Answer 126

- Colonies start to raise a little brood in winter, and then - colony growth explodes in spring. - This growth is generally driven by incoming food. - Beekeepers have to actually manage for space to accommodate incoming food.

Answer 127

- The risk for insufficient global protein supply drives many companies to search for alternative protein sources in pet food - Some alternative proteins considered include fungal protein, bacterial protein, and insect protein

Answer 128

* Excess protein- excess ammonia in the water * Excess phosphorus in the diet * Phosphorus can have negative impact on water * Algae plant growth→decaying matter→reduced dissolved oxygen→fish deaths * Diets need to be optimized for ‘healthy’ growth of fish whilst minimizing waste

Answer 129

Food should be offered in the evening, when sugar gliders are active • Preferred on an elevated platform, because gliders feel more secure eating up high, as they would in trees in the wild

Answer 130

• Cecotropes are the product of the cecum, and are partially fermented • Cecotropes are high in B vitamins, vitamin K, amino acids, and short- chain fatty acids • Guinea pigs would typically produce cecotropes at night and ingest them right away ( sometimes called night feces)

Answer 131

- Increased urea production can also increase smell and airway irritation if excrements are not cleaned - Protein digestibility differs between species according to their natural diet - Protein requirements during egg laying are high, especially in chickens that lay many eggs. Also higher during growth.

Answer 132

- Supposedly a source of medium chain triglycerides and other beneficial, oxidation resistant, fatty acids • Only 15-20% of the FA are MCTs in coconut oil • No proven benefits in pets (Fagua et al. 2015) • MCTs may be substrates for ketone bodies and may provide an energy source for CNS (Pan et al. 2010) • Potential risks for high fat diets

Answer 133

* Dairy * Hard nuts/seeds * Raisins * Garlic/onion * Avocado * Raw meat * Wild caught slugs, insects

Answer 134

1) African Grey Parrots 2) Actively laying birds

Answer 135

proline and histidine

Answer 136

• Treatment: there are no dissolution diets for ferrets for either struvite or cystine • Surgical removal is needed when the urolith causes clinical signs Prevention of recurrence: • Cystine forms more easily in acidic urine, therefore urine alkalization with potassium citrate or other supplements may be helpful • Struvite forms more easily in alkaline urine, therefore supplement that acidify the urine such as methionine supplements may help (but may increase risk of cystine???) • Urine dilution is always recommended for prevention • This may be achieved by feeding a high moisture diet, diluting the food with additional water if needed

Answer 137

• Cystine uroliths are cysteine dimers • Cystine is a non-essential amino acid that comes from the diet or metabolized from methionine • In dogs, a hereditary trait can cause urinary leakage of multiple amino acids to the urine, including cysteine • Etiology in ferrets is unknown ( Some authors have reported an anecdotal relationship between feeding a high legume protein diet, rich in protein and sulfur amino acids, and cystine urolithiasis • For example, some grain free ferret diets) • Other amino acids do not dimerize whereas cysteine dimerizes into a water insoluble compound • This builds over time and forms crystals and uroliths

Answer 138

Growth/ Larvae

Answer 139

- While the exact requirements of vitamin A are unknown, excess can result in toxicity * ExcessvitaminAmayresultinconjunctivitisandrespiratorysigns(sometimes difficult to differentiate from hypovitaminosis A), accompanied by multiple organ failure * Tortoises and box turtles are very sensitive to injections of vitamin A, these drugs may cause sloughing of the skin resulting in severe skin ulceration

Answer 140

- Well developed cardiac sphincter

Answer 141

- Frame Feeder - bucket feeders - Warre Hive ( top feeder)

Answer 142

- A coccidiostat (antiprotozoal agent, for example, Amprolium) is generally added to the diets of pullets and meat birds that are raised on the ground - Feed manufacturers label feed according to the type and age of poultry (for example: starter, grower, layer) with appropriate instructions for use - Some coccidiostats need to be withdrawn if the animal or its products are used for food ( not for human consumption, egg laying birds of meat birds cannot be on coccidiostats)

Answer 143

* People tend to view/ discuss honey bee nutrition differently than other animals. * Ability to forage * Treatment-free / hands-off movement * Lack of ethical consideration for invertebrates

Answer 144

• In nature sugar gliders feed on • Sap and gum of the eucalyptus and acacia tree • Pollen • Nectar • Manna (a sugar deposit from the sap oozing from wounds on tree branches or trunks) • Honeydew (sugar secreted by sap- sucking insects) • Variety of insects and spiders

Answer 145

Advantages: nutritionally balanced and better health, avoids selectivity by the bird, simple, clean, no vitamin supplementation  Disadvantages: cost, acceptance, boredom (nutrient dense)

Answer 146

- Rats are prone to becoming overweight or obese • This can be the result of excess treats or fruit - Water is best provided in sipping bottle as this prevents spilling Food should be stored in a dry cool place and consumed within 6 months

Answer 147

• Treatment: - Usually these cases do not require surgery, even if there is an impaction - Fluids (try not to use ear vein, not ideal even though its easier, not ideal for large volumes) - Assisted (syringe) feeding - Pain control (avoid narcotics that slow GI motility) - Correct underlying disease • Correct diet • Dental disease • Pain etc

Answer 148

* Environmental stressors (flow rate, water quality) affect nutritional efficacy and requirements * Oxygen: as temperature increases, water oxygen carrying capacity is reduced * Therefore, there is a narrow optimum for temperature where oxygen carrying is still high * Light/darkness: warm water fish do well with more light more similar to their natural habitat * Overcrowding/undercrowding: some species actually do better at high stocking density

Answer 149

It is abnormal to see many cecotopes on the bottom of the cage • Can indicate a disease/obesity • Can occur in wire bottom cages • Obese guinea pigs • Arthritic guinea pigs

Answer 150

* Rabbits have a very sensitive GI tract * They rely heavily on the normal GI microbiota to protect that gut and for normal digestion

Answer 151

• Use of certain antimicrobials such as beta-lactams can be fatal in rabbits (and guinea pigs and chinchillas too) (especially orally, given injectable will be safer, but still can cause issues) • Especially if given enterally (per-os) • Causes GI dysbiosis • Can lead to bacterial translocation Severe overgrowth of unhealthy bacteria.

Answer 152

If there is a period without food - like a really rainy week – bees can become nutritionally stressed. Small colonies can starve in spring.

Answer 153

Honey bees preferentially eat fresh food, but they store food for lean times.

Answer 154

▪ Sinuses, oral cavity, and skin most affected ▪ Most common in all- seed-diets ▪ Blunting of choanal papillae ▪ Plaque formation in oral cavity ▪ Abscess formation Conditions occuring from this: Squamous metaplasia and hyperkeratosis of epithelial cells

Answer 155

Pets, or used for eggs and meat or a combination Two rules to remember: - A chicken will only grow and perform to the extent it receives proper nutrition - A chicken cannot grow beyond its maximum genetic potential

Answer 156

* Ferrets are neophobic and may not accept a new diet easily * Recommend to expose them to a variety of foods and diets at a young age

Answer 157

- Surgical treatment may be necessary according to location. Cystotomy may be needed with large cystic calculi. • Diet change may help prevent recurrence • Review the diet for any high calcium food items • Alfalfa hay • High calcium leafy greens - Grass hay may also reduce urinary calcium excretion compared with legume hay and increased water intake.

Answer 158

• GI stasis or ileus can occur for a variety of reasons: • Illness • Pain • Heat/temperature • Dental disease • Diet (inadequate fiber) • It can progress to severe dysbiosis, impaction and can be ultimately fatal ( listen with stethoscope for gut sounds/ motility sounds)

Answer 159

▪ Classic disease of budgerigars ▪ Swelling in clavicular region, voice changes, dyspnea, and regurgitation ▪ Diagnosis via history, physical exam, and response to therapy ▪ CT scan would be diagnostic for enlarged thyroid ▪ Therapy is oral iodine supplementation

Answer 160

- Rickets (a term commonly pertains to vitamin D or phosphorus deficiency) occurs most commonly in young meat birds. - Calcium deficiency is termed nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism

Answer 161

- Many times, herbivores will not show interest in pellets unless disguised in other vegetation - Avoid using hay that has been stored for long because of beta carotene /vitamin A depletion

Answer 162

• Abundance – very few flowers left on the landscape. • Quality - different species, protein content • Diversity - Monocultures • Safety – Pesticides • Foraging ability (size of colony, weather, health) • Weather - Drought

Answer 163

TREATMENT Decrease protein/purine in diet Allopurinol ? Often have concurrent renal failure Fluid therapy Phosphate binders

Answer 164

An unbalanced diet in birds would lead to malnutrition, obesity, impaired immune function, poor reproductive success and more

Answer 165

• Byproducts: certain parts of carcass that doesn't meet human standards. ◦ Nothing wrong with some of these byproducts. Just not the typical.

Answer 166

* The length of the digestive system of the fish is highly variable * Stomach tends to be larger in carnivores * Species with a more vegetarian diet, have a more complex system and a longer intestine

Answer 167

The amount bees need will be entirely local – talk to beekeepers in the region.

Answer 168

* Can shed salmonella in feces for up to 2 weeks. * Can easily give it to owners. Problematic for older/ immunocompromised owners, ect. * FDA does not advocate for raw meat, poultry, or seafood diet. High pressure is better, kills majority of organisms, but still has risk, make specific recommendations. * No specific benefits of raw diet, and and proven risks.

Answer 169

- Deficiency in copper or iron can cause anemia - Copper deficiency may also cause orthopedic disease as copper is important for cartilage maturation - Copper deficiency can lead to rupture of the aorta likely related to failure to synthesize desmosine which is integral to the vessel wall.

Answer 170

• No evidence of harmful effect for grain inclusive • Grains contribute vitamins, minerals, amino acids, essential fatty acids, and fiber • Highly digestible (\>90%) • Allergies relatively uncommon FDA warning: potential connection between diet and cases of DCM as result of taurine deficiency.

Answer 171

- Fruits and vegetables from the grocery store are many times not as nutritious as they natural diet (protein and fiber) - Its important to select the correct vegetables - For example, good sources of protein: romaine lettuce, collard greens and spinach), alfalfa and mung-bean sprouts, mushrooms and bamboo shoots - Avoid excess sugary fruit

Answer 172

Rabbits GI is so sensitive, if you go in for laparotomy it is 50/50% if they will survive and high risk of damaging enteric nervous system) Pain with surgery can also make surgical intervention worse. Dont do surgery if you can help it.

Answer 173

Housing: Description of cage, substrate, furniture. Frequency / routine for cleaning. Location (indoors, outdoors) Presence of cage mates, type and size of habitat. Temperature: Measured temp ranges within habitat (should be gradients of temp), position of heat in cage, safety precautions to prevent thermal injury, type of heating ( radiant, ventral sources) Lighting: Is light filtered by glass or plexiglas ( this filters UV light) , Length of light cycle, positioning of light source, type of lighting provided (incandescent, fluorescent) , natural sunlight

Answer 174

- There are several water systems and misters that can be used to increase humidity - Many reptiles benefit from regular soaking as water may absorbed rectally - Some reptiles will not drink from plastic containers - Try ceramic or stainless steel instead

Answer 175

Water: Avian water requirements change in different species - Australian and other desert birds have lower water requirements - Water requirements are highest in neonates - Water should be fresh and clean, without supplements

Answer 176

* No published benefits * no abnormalities seen when dogs were on vegetarian diets in bloodwork * Sled dogs fed this diet were fine * Study by PETA - \> 80 % reported in good health (take with grain of salt) * Vegans are only one feeding vegan dog food.

Answer 177

They are relatively short term ( only 28 days)

Answer 178

Most common in piscivorous birds Can occur in seed-eaters, especially with rancid oils/fats CLINICAL SIGNS 1. Neurological (tremors, paralysis, ataxia) 2. Myopathies 3. Steatitis

Answer 179

Bee bread is made by mixing pollen, honey, and honey bee salivary secretions that contain bacteria commonly found in the honey bee digestive track.

Answer 180

▪ Present for tremors or seizures, or even cardiac arrhythmias but not orthopedic problems ▪ Treat with parenteral calcium and long term dietary calcium supplementation ▪ Monitor plasma calcium every 4-6 months and supplement as needed - Increase exposure to UV light African Greys have higher calcium requirements than other birds?

Answer 181

Simple syrup 1) Starter colonies 2) Before winter 3) Dearth 4) Sick colonies

Answer 182

Radiographs can be helpful to determine bone quality • Can help detect hypovitaminosis D, calcium, phosphorus

Answer 183

• Mandible may be swollen, soft Cheilitis Stomatitis Gingivitis Fractures in long bones and spinal fractures Lethargy Constipation/ cloacal prolapse/diarrhea

Answer 184

Studies known in these areas that prove benefit: • Anti-inflammatory effect ( more than those found from palm seed oil ect) • Dermatological disease (Scott et al.1997) • Cardiovascular disease (Rush et al. 2000; Laurent et al. 2008) • Osteoarthritis (Barrouin-Melo et al 2016; Roush et al 2010 ) • Renal disease (Brown et al. 1998; Brown et al. 2000;…) • Hyperlipidemia (Bauer 1995) • ect - important to know quality you are receiving, cold extraction is most preferred. - Takes time to work

Answer 185

Storing food in preparation of a period without food. 1) Store food in the hive 2) Store food in their bodies If fat bodies are not maintained than they will not be able to take care of the brood.

Answer 186

* There must be flowers in bloom * Flowers must be within flight range * Flowers must be the right type * Flowers not stressed * The weather must be good for foraging * The colony must have enough excess bees to forage.

Answer 187

- Feed should not be stale, rancid, or moldy - Feed storage: dry cool area (away from direct sunlight, moisture or heat) - Do not use/buy feed that is not fresh - vitamins may degrade

Answer 188

* Alot of emphasis on palatability/ presentation * Lack of supp use. * Miss-use of supp * Use of ingredients with hight or low caloric density. * Use ingredients high in very specific nutrients ( i.e vitamin D or Omega 3- FA) * Lack expertise/ knowledge * Don't use appropriate software/ nutritional data

Answer 189

- You may need to judge if the clinical signs and findings warrant treatment or not - Unwarranted treatment with antimicrobial or antiparasitic medication can do more harm than good

Answer 190

- Water should be provided in sufficient amounts • Water should be accessible, in adequate temperature, fresh and clean - Most turtles and lizards drink from bowls - Some lizards (geckos, anoles, chameleons) may lick droplets from plants if water is misted on the plant - The habitat for reptiles that live in high moisture environments in nature should be very high in humidity to avoid chronic dehydration and risk of renal injury

Answer 191

All sick GP should receive vitamin C parenterally 100 mg SQ/ per day

Answer 192

 Relatively common (up to 30% of avian patients!)  Uric acid is the major nitrogenous waste product in birds (rather than urea or ammonia)  When the kidneys don’t function properly the glomerular filtration rate is reduced

Answer 193

• Commercially prepared hedgehog diets are preferred • Lower fat cat food can also be used • Additional acceptable food items such as cooked meat, eggs, mealworms, crickets, earthworms, waxworms and fruits and vegetables can be provided in small amounts • Food intake should be adjusted as hedgehogs are prone to obesity

Answer 194

Also known as insulinomas • The most diagnosed neoplasm in ferrets with a reported incidence of 22-25% • This disease often remains undiagnosed for prolonged periods of time, due in part to free- choice feeding strategies for ferret - Signs of hypoglycemia: Signs of hypoglycemia in ferrets include lethargy, ptylism, and weakness • seizures are uncommon

Answer 195

To reduce the amount of heat and energy needed, bees stop brood production in winter.

Answer 196

* Nectar is mainly water • Contains sugars * Fructose * Glucose * Sucrose * Traces: * Proteins * lipids * antioxidants * Alkaloids * Phenolic substances * Glycosides

Answer 197

* The metabolic rate can be affected by physiological changes such as spawning * For most species, this is in late summer * During winter, requirements are usually lowered * Underfeeding does not let the fish reach full potential * Excess feeding is wasteful and can contribute to water pollution * Fish energy requirements are lower than terrestrial animals (5-6% of mammals or birds) * Low expenditure on supporting locomotion, heat production

Answer 198

Recheck within 1-2 weeks of starting on treatment - Radiograph after 6 weeks to check the mineralization of its bones. • A lengthy treatment as many gliders take 3 to 6 months to recover • Recovery may not be complete in some cases due to bone remodeling

Answer 199

- Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism is not uncommon in sugar gliders fed a high sugar/fruit diet • Calcium, vitamin D, phosphorus deficiency or skewed Ca:P ratio • Should rule out kidney disease although less common • These animals usually have poor skeletal mineralization • Multiple fractures- can include spinal fractures too • Seizures due to hypocalcemia may occur

Answer 200

• Many owners and vets prefer to feed pet home prepared diets. ◦ Distrust in pet food companies ◦ Family members-\> anthropomorphism ◦ Decreased cost • The reality ◦ Nutritional imbalance more common ◦ Usually more expensive, and more time consuming.

Answer 201

- The amount of stored food • The rate of incoming food • The amount of royal jelly surrounding the larvae

Answer 202

• Strict carnivores • Dentition designed for grasping and tearing • Strong bite capable of crushing the skull of small prey • Simple carnivore GI tract, with stomach, duodenum, jejunum, and colon • Lack ileum and cecum, and colon is non sacculated

Answer 203

The small intestines: - Bile and pancreatic secretions are transported into the distal duodenum and help with digestion of carbohydrate, protein and fat Large intestines: - The large intestines consists of paired caeca and a short straight intestines - The caeca are a site of fermentation and lymphatic tissue - The straight intestine ends in the cloaca, along with the urogenital tract

Answer 204

Most common in piscivorous birds (thiaminase release from fish) Can occur in birds on all meat diet CLINICAL SIGNS Neurological : opisthotonus, tremors, paralysis, ataxia DIAGNOSIS History, physical exam, and response to treatment TREATMENT Parenteral therapy followed with oral supplementation PREVENTION Oral supplementation as preventative measure

Answer 205

Molting (replacing feathers) requires specific nutrients, and has higher energy costs - The energy is needed for the production and maintenance of feather pulps - It can increase by 3-20% (at peak molt)

Answer 206

• Energy requirements: RER= 70 X Bodyweight (in kg)0.75 • Feeding with a syringe should be done slowly, allowing the patient to chew and swallow • Do not feed a patient that is reluctant or when struggling, make sure they are also fully awake and able to masticate or they risk aspiration. (though they tolerate it well normally)

Answer 207

• Taurine is conjugated to bile acids in dogs and cats • Indigestible protein and fiber may alter bacterial flora • Result in production of cardiac toxins (as in people/rodents) or depletion of taurine

Answer 208

DIAGNOSIS Serum liver enzymes and bile acids Radiographs/ultrasound Liver biopsy/aspirate (with pathology review)

Answer 209

Honey bees communicate food locations through dance language. - Bees that have found a good source will return to the hive to tell others. - She will communicate both the distance (energy needed) and direction (in relation to the sun.

Answer 210

- Swim bladder disease (swim bladder disorder or flipover) is common in aquarium fish - The swim bladder is an internal gas-filled organ that contributes to the ability of a fish to control its buoyancy - The disease may be caused by intestinal parasites or by constipation induced by high nitrate levels from over-feeding - Some fish respond well to a high fiber meal such as cooked green pea (helps with constipation) - If not- surgical repair

Answer 211

- Frugivore (eats primarily fruit) - Granivore (eats grains) - Nectarivore (feeds on flower nectar) - Palynivores (feed on pollen)

Answer 212

* The intestinal length is related to the diet- herbivores have a longer GI tract than carnivores (takes longer to digest high fiber materials) * Gastrointestinal motility is impacted by the presence of ingesta * The pancreas has an important role in secreting digestive enzymes * In some species it is mixed with the spleen to form ‘splenopancreas’ * Chitinase is secreted in species that eat insects * Amylase is secreted in higher amounts in herbivorous and omnivorous reptiles * The pancreas also secrets bicarbonate to alkalinize the intestinal lumen and allow for the activity of enzymes * The liver produces bile that is secreted to the duodenum

Answer 213

* Diet poor in protein, calcium and phosphorus or vitamin D can cause skeletal malformation, poor growth, and ascites * These are not often seen with commercial formulated diets

Answer 214

* The bees withhold food from the foragers * The foragers die off * The lack of forager hormones causes nurse bees to become * The nurse bees eat the eggs and young larvae * The colony has a dip in population * May miss later bloom / not get enough honey/ raise enough * The larvae that survive are stunted * They are poor nurse bees, and are less able to raise the next generation

Answer 215

CLINICAL SIGNS ▪ Sinusitis/upper respiratory disease ▪ Recurring bacterial infections ▪ Blunted choanal papillae ▪ White nodular plaques in the oral cavity ▪ Hyperkeratosis of skin ▪ Gout and renal failure if ureters affected ▪ Decreased reproductive success

Answer 216

* Hundreds of chemical compounds: Cannabinoids, Terpenoids, Flavanoids * Growing use for a variety of conditions- cancer, joint disease, epilepsy, pain * Very little published data- several clinical trials are underway

Answer 217

Can occur as primary disease but more often secondary to obesity + anorexia CLINICAL SIGNS Varies with severity- anorexia, depression, diarrhea, dyspnea, liver failure

Answer 218

* Pet owner opinion doesn't mean the dog is healthy * Dogs sometimes will present with intestinal / hepatic mysterious diseases that could be caused by raw diets.

Answer 219

 Feed whole prey. Do not gut prey. All meat diet leads to SNHP  Avoid fat prey items (e.g guinea pigs). Good source of properly euthanized preys  Fish high in PU fats, so feed fresh or properly stored fish and supplement with Vitamin E/Se  Fish: thiaminase, so add thiamine

Answer 220

Common mistake is to not provide enough carbs when colonies need to make wax. The colony needs to create the comb AND fill it AND ripen it – in one season!

Answer 221

- Clinical signs are similar to those in other species including skin dermatosis, poor growth, and musculoskeletal disease - Zinc needs to be supplemented where plants with phytates are used as part of the meal unless phytase (an enzyme that breaks phytates) is included - Zinc deficiency causes decreased laying and poor embryo development - In young chicks: retarded growth, shortening and thickening of leg bones and enlargement of the hock joint, scaling of the skin (especially on the feet), very poor feathering

Answer 222

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is used rather than RER - Activity increases the metabolic rate. - Perching requires 2x BMR Preening Requires 2.2-2.5 X BMR - Flying ( very taxing) requires 11-20 x BMR.

Answer 223

Elevated serum uric acid levels lead to crystal formation in joints or on organs surfaces Causes Excess protein (purine), calcium, Vitamin D3, renal disease and hypovitaminosis A have all been implicated

Answer 224

- The diet should have sufficient vitamin E, especially if high in unsaturated fatty acids - Diet that is stored long -\> fat oxidation and vitamin E depletion

Answer 225

Reasons to Hand Feed:  Tamer pets, double clutching, bad parenting Formulas are very important Problems for inexperiencedowners:  beak malformation, oral trauma, crop burns and fistulas

Answer 226

Diagnosis: History and physical exam Kidneys may be enlarged Coelomic ultrasound Biochemistry: elevated plasma phosphorus, calcium (low or high), uric acid and urea sometimes potassium may also be increased

Answer 227

- Hard insoluble granite grit should be available to the birds - It helps food digestion in the ventriculus - Should be made available 2-3 days a month - Calcium grit can be provided but it does not last long as the calcium dissolves and absorbed

Answer 228

Unnecessary when on balanced (formulated) diet May be useful in a sick bird or when weaning to a pelleted diet In the food, not in the water ( some vitamins will degrade in water, some change taste of H2O Some birds will have difficulty changing to peletted diet.

Answer 229

- While these are not formulated for reptiles, dog food and cat food can be used temporarily in carnivorous reptiles - Herbivores should not be fed these diets as the protein intake is excessive and can promote renal disease - Avoid dog and cat food with high fat content since can cause GI signs

Answer 230

Bees are adapted to survive long periods without incoming food. In most temperate climates this is winter. In tropical climates this is often a dry season. In either case, bees must rely on their stores.

Answer 231

- Except for reptiles that consume whole prey, nutritional deficiencies are common in pet reptiles * VitaminD3andcalciumareamongstthemostcommonnutritionaldeficiencies in pet reptiles * The risk of nutritional deficiencies can be minimized with a complete and balanced diet, gut loaded prey, correct husbandry, nutritious and varied vegetables, and sometimes supplements

Answer 232

- Protein Patties - Combo of egg/ soy proteins - Many different brands - Can buy premade or mix powder with syrup.

Answer 233

- Diets low in calcium, low in Vitamin D, or high in phosphorus - All meat diets (and not whole prey) in raptors - Bone is resorbed to maintain blood calcium concentrations leading to osteopenia - Increased PTH seen

Answer 234

- Renal disease is common in reptiles - Many reptiles don’t form much urea - Uric acid (rather than creatinine) is used as major indicator of kidney function - Uric acid can increase in carnivorous reptiles post prandially - Phosphorus may increase - Calcium may be decreased - Inverse Ca:P ratio - These can be early indicators

Answer 235

• Common presentation- rabbit fed an all pelleted diet without hay, or ‘party mix diet’, or due to diet change • Inadequate fiber intake contributes to poor motility • Clinical signs: • Hyporexia/anorexia , Low fecal production- feces hard, small , Diminished GI sounds- borborygmi, Lethargy

Answer 236

0.6 • currently no limitations of phosphorus that can be put in cat food. Need to establish maximum

Answer 237

• Ferrets have a requirement for 10 essential amino acids • Diet generally high in fat • Low glucokinase activity (like cats), diet typically low in carbohydrate • Ferrets have a commercial diets available • Relatively few brands • Many grain-free diets • Some people feed raw (or previously frozen-thawed) whole prey

Answer 238

• There are many fads in pet food that are not science based • Despite this, many advocates are extremely passionate about them • While arguments are rarely conducive, but providing as much information can be important • More research is required to understand the impact of various ingredients, nutrients, and processing on the health of dogs and cats

Answer 239

The crop stores food when the gizzard is full - The food softens and swells with water - No chemical digestion in the crop/esophagus - The stomach has two main parts- the proventriculus or the glandular stomach, and the muscular stomach (gizzard) - Proventriculus: The glandular cells secrete acid and pepsin - The gizzard physically grinds the food

Answer 240

- Green iguanas are among the most affected pet reptiles presented with this condition - Other affected species: bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), Asian water dragons (Physignathus cocincinus), various chameleon species, leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius), uromastyx (Uromastyx spp), Testudo spp, and Geochelone spp. - Can happen in any reptile, including snakes - Can also occur in amphibians

Answer 241

- Many subclinical cases • Clinical sigs: rough hair coat, anorexia, diarrhea, teeth grinding, swollen and painful joints, secondary infections, delayed wound healing, lameness, internal hemorrhage • Diagnosis based upon dietary history • Serum ascorbic acid levels validated but rarely used

Answer 242

* For fleas & parasites * No published information on efficacy * Potential to induce Heinze-body anemia

Answer 243

Birds can be categorized by their diet - There are 23 groups of birds according to their diet There are very many species of birds even within similar groups- for example 9000 species of psittacine - Some psittacines feed primarily on high fat nuts (macaws for example) - Others feed on a much lower fat vegetation (Amazons)

Answer 244

- Calcium absorption is independent of vitamin D in rabbits • Vitamin D is needed for phosphorus absorption in rabbits • Rabbits have similar calcium requirements to other species but are very efficient in calcium absorption • Rabbits normally have high blood calcium • Much higher than dogs or cats • More calcium is excreted in the urine

Answer 245

- For reptiles in terrariums and tanks, important to provide unfiltered, high quality full spectrum UV light bulb - Temperature is critical for reptile metabolism and health - Make sure a temperature gradient exist to allow the reptile to find an optimal temperature - The UV light should not be filtered by glass or other filters - If the light is placed in the enclosure, be careful of burns - Follow a normal day/night cycle

Answer 246

• Commercial formulated diet should account for about 50% of the diet • Calcium-loaded insects (crickets, mealworms, waxworms, cockroaches, moths) • Fruits, nuts, and vegetables should be offered only in moderation • Nectar/sap substitute (eg, fructose /sucrose/glucose or honey diluted to 10% with water) • Nectar should account for up to less than 50% of the diet • Several nectar substitutes are commercially available • Acacia gum powder • Nectar diets meant for lory birds • Eggs, lean meat, newborn mice can be provided occasionally

Answer 247

 Ratites, gees and ducks, pigeons and doves, chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quails and peafowl  Commercial diets available but not necessarily adequate.  Problems include rotational and angular limb deformity, angel (oar) wing, paresis and slipped tendon, rolled toes (riboflavin deficiency), etc..

Answer 248

If bees don’t have enough food, beekeepers must move their bees to areas that have more food, or they must supplemental feed. - Plant flowers

Answer 249

Free amino acid present in several tissues in high concentration : Heart and retina Taurine is conjugated into bile acids, similar to glycine. Dogs and cats use taurine rather than glycine, whereas other mammals may use either. Dogs can make taurine from methionine or cysteine

Answer 250

- Important to consider the molars and premolars- not only the incisors - Use drill when trying to trim teeth, clippers can cause splinters/ fractures of teeth. - Treatment: often repeated procedures are required to evenly reduce crown height with a high-speed burr • Diet change- once malocclusion is resolved increase fiber intake to encourage proper teeth wear

Answer 251

- Some reptiles would hibernate during the winter - During this time, they would not move, feed, drink or defecate and rely on catabolism of fat stores - The liver would have a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels and protein metabolism and catabolism - Its important that the animal is healthy and in good body condition before brumation

Answer 252

Dysecdysis ( incomoplete shed)

Answer 253

- Avivorous birds: eat birds - Carnivorous birds: eat meat - Insectivorous birds: eat insects - Molluscivorous: feed on mollusks - Piscivorous: feed on fish

Answer 254

The common insect proteins used in petfood presently include black soldier fly larva and crickets

Answer 255

- A disease that is characterized by an abnormal cartilage mass in the proximal head of the tibiotarsus - Likely genetic + nutritional background - Mostly in fast growers - Signs can occur early but more usually are not initially seen until 14–25 days of age Signs: Pain, Decreased ambulation, Stiff gait Prevention: Can be preventable by slowing down growth rate and a balanced diet with respect to calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D3

Answer 256

No Some ingredients implicated: potatoes, sweet potatoes, legumes

Answer 257

Clinical signs: - Cheese-like, but odorless, discharge from one or more eye - Extremely thin birds (i.e., emaciation) - Weak and/or uncoordinated birds - Ruffled feathers - Eyelids stuck together (referred to as sicca) - Water discharge from the throat (referred to as roup), nostrils or eyes - Egg production and hatchability decrease in adults (Looks like it has pinkeye)

Answer 258

* Used to treat a variety of skin issues, UTI, digestion, clean teeth * May have some antifungal activity, used in dogs with yeast otitis * Risks for skin burns, teeth erosion

Answer 259

- Fish have requirements for protein and essential amino acids - Carnivore fish are in constant gluconeogenesis (like cats) - Protein requirements are highest for growth and reproduction - Requirements for total protein vary by species, but essential amino acid requirements are similar Excess protein→excess ammonia Decreased water quality in a closed system

Answer 260

Supportive and symptomatic Tube feedings Thermal support - O2 cages with warmth typically ideal. Minimize stress -\> only handle when necessary Lactulose (for hepatic encephalopathy) Vitamin K as needed ( if hemmorhaging add vit K) PROGNOSIS: Varies with severity, and ability to correct underlying problems

Answer 261

From January 1, 2014 to November 30, 2018, 300 cases of DCM were reported to the FDA • November 30, 2018 to April 30, 2019 236 additional cases reported • The FDA reported that 90% of the diets named in the reports that had received were grain-free, though 10% do contain grains - The FDA states that nearly all of the grain-free products had adequate levels of methionine-cystine (above the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) minimum nutritional requirement of 0.65%) and that they are still gathering information to understand “if (and how) taurine metabolism may have a role in these reports

Answer 262

• Dental malocclusion in rabbits and rodents is much more prevalent in animals fed a low roughage diet • Party mixes, grains, excess fruit can all contribute • Vicious cycle- dental disease may make it - In guinea pigs- hypovitaminosis C may be a contributing factor harder to chew fiber • Malocclusion may be quite severe and may develop to secondary abscessation which may have a significant negative impact on quality of life

Answer 263

If there is insufficient honey in the hive, the bees will starve/ freeze.

Answer 264

yes they do • Fiber: • Prebiotic • Promotes satiety • Protection • Regulates GI transit • Indigestible tissues such as collagen, hair that behave similar to fiber in the gut

Answer 265

Do not get honey from the store. This can cause disease spread and is not ideal. Make sure they have enough food to make there own honey.

Answer 266

• Like cats, overweight ferrets that are anorexic may develop complications associated with a catabolic state, including hepatic lipidosis • Therefore, nutritional intervention is important to prevent this • There are formulated powdered, high fat and high protein diets that ferrets regularly accept

Answer 267

Key to proper health 70-80% Main Diet Pellet based or homemade diet 20-30% Remaining Diet Vegetables Grains/Nuts Fruit -only small amounts Seeds - only as a treat If they are not feeding pellets, likely diet is unbalanced. Avocados are toxic and can cause dyspnea and respiratory distress

Answer 268

Larva + Nurse

Answer 269

- Metabolic bone disease is a general name for diseases that result in poor bone mineralization due to deficiency in calcium, vitamin D3 or unbalanced calcium: phosphorus ratio - Vitamin D is important for absorption of calcium and phosphorus and for their deposition in the skeleton - Vitamin D3 in some species is not absorbed as efficiently as it is metabolized by full spectrum UV light - Therefore, lighting is paramount in prevention of metabolic bone disease

Answer 270

Pain activates sympathetic, which will inhibit parasympathetic which is responsible for GI motility.

Answer 271

* Presentation: depression, anorexia, lethargy, hematuria, stranguria, and teeth grinding. * The urinary bladder may be palpably enlarged and firm (particularly in rabbits) * Imaging with abdominal ultrasound or radiographs would confirm the diagnosis.

Answer 272

• Rats are highly adaptable in their diet and can eat a variety of foods • May be neophobic- will not try new foods unless exposed to them at a young age • Since rats are used as lab animals, their nutritional requirements are well researched and understood • Commercial pellets can provide a rat their entire nutrition with no need to supplement

Answer 273

• Malliard Rxn products: Mutagenic activity and heterocyclic amine carcinogens in commercial pet foods. Found to be extremely minimal and non harmful

Answer 274

* Beef * Chicken * Corn * Wheat * Cow’s milk * Soy * Eggs * Fish

Answer 275

- Fat content may differ according to the bird and the goals (meat/egg/pet) - Diets for meat-type birds, for example, will contain over 3,000 kcal per kilogram and are higher in fat Higher fat and lower protein diets may be used in the summer as less heat is produced by fat metabolism

Answer 276

• Treatment: • If fractures are present- adjust the caging to provide less climbing and gliding opportunities • The cage should have smooth sides so that the glider cannot climb • A plastic container may work or a large aquarium • Place food and water in shallow dishes on the bottom of its cage • Do not provide any climbing structures • Some sugar gliders may not be able to groom, and may need the owner to help clean them regularly • Calcium globionate given for several months until bone quality improves • Calcitonin may be provided • Consider analgesia such as meloxicam. - Seizures can be controlled with calcium lactate.